PASTORAL
CONSTITUTION
ON THE CHURCH IN THE
MODERN WORLD
GAUDIUM ET SPES
PROMULGATED BY
HIS HOLINESS, POPE PAUL VI
ON DECEMBER 7, 1965
ON THE CHURCH IN THE
MODERN WORLD
GAUDIUM ET SPES
PROMULGATED BY
HIS HOLINESS, POPE PAUL VI
ON DECEMBER 7, 1965
PREFACE
1. The joys and the hopes, the
griefs and the anxieties of the men of this age, especially those who are poor
or in any way afflicted, these are the joys and hopes, the griefs and anxieties
of the followers of Christ. Indeed, nothing genuinely human fails to raise an
echo in their hearts. For theirs is a community composed of men. United in
Christ, they are led by the Holy Spirit in their journey to the Kingdom of
their Father and they have welcomed the news of salvation which is meant for
every man. That is why this community realizes that it is truly linked with
mankind and its history by the deepest of bonds.
2. Hence this Second Vatican
Council, having probed more profoundly into the mystery of the Church, now
addresses itself without hesitation, not only to the sons of the Church and to
all who invoke the name of Christ, but to the whole of humanity. For the
council yearns to explain to everyone how it conceives of the presence and
activity of the Church in the world of today.
Therefore, the council focuses its
attention on the world of men, the whole human family along with the sum of
those realities in the midst of which it lives; that world which is the theater
of man's history, and the heir of his energies, his tragedies and his triumphs;
that world which the Christian sees as created and sustained by its Maker's
love, fallen indeed into the bondage of sin, yet emancipated now by Christ, Who
was crucified and rose again to break the strangle hold of personified evil, so
that the world might be fashioned anew according to God's design and reach its
fulfillment.
3. Though mankind is stricken with
wonder at its own discoveries and its power, it often raises anxious questions
about the current trend of the world, about the place and role of man in the
universe, about the meaning of its individual and collective strivings, and
about the ultimate destiny of reality and of humanity. Hence, giving witness
and voice to the faith of the whole people of God gathered together by Christ,
this council can provide no more eloquent proof of its solidarity with, a, well
as its respect and love for the entire human family with which it is bound up,
than by engaging with it in conversation about these various problems. The
council brings to mankind light kindled from the Gospel, and puts at its
disposal those saving resources which the Church herself, under the guidance of
the Holy Spirit, receives from her Founder. For the human person deserves to be
preserved; human society deserves to be renewed. Hence the focal point of our
total presentation will be man himself, whole and entire, body and soul, heart
and conscience, mind and will.
Therefore, this sacred synod,
proclaiming the noble destiny of man and championing the Godlike seed which has
been sown in him, offers to mankind the honest assistance of the Church in
fostering that brotherhood of all men which corresponds to this destiny of
theirs. Inspired by no earthly ambition, the Church seeks but a solitary goal:
to carry forward the work of Christ under the lead of the befriending Spirit.
And Christ entered this world to give witness to the truth, to rescue and not
to sit in judgment, to serve and not to be served.(2)
INTRODUCTORY
STATEMENT THE SITUATION OF MEN IN THE MODERN WORLD
4. To carry out such a task, the
Church has always had the duty of scrutinizing the signs of the times and of
interpreting them in the light of the Gospel. Thus, in language intelligible to
each generation, she can respond to the perennial questions which men ask about
this present life and the life to come, and about the relationship of the one
to the other. We must therefore recognize and understand the world in which we
live, its explanations, its longings, and its often dramatic characteristics.
Some of the main features of the modern world can be sketched as follows.
Today, the human race is involved in
a new stage of history. Profound and rapid changes are spreading by degrees
around the whole world. Triggered by the intelligence and creative energies of
man, these changes recoil upon him, upon his decisions and desires, both
individual and collective, and upon his manner of thinking and acting with
respect to things and to people. Hence we can already speak of a true cultural
and social transformation, one which has repercussions on man's religious life
as well.
As happens in any crisis of growth,
this transformation has brought serious difficulties in its wake. Thus while
man extends his power in every direction, he does not always succeed in
subjecting it to his own welfare. Striving to probe more profoundly into the
deeper recesses of his own mind, he frequently appears more unsure of himself.
Gradually and more precisely he lays bare the laws of society, only to be
paralyzed by uncertainty about the direction to give it.
Never has the human race enjoyed
such an abundance of wealth, resources and economic power, and yet a huge
proportion of the worlds citizens are still tormented by hunger and poverty,
while countless numbers suffer from total illiteracy. Never before has man had
so keen an understanding of freedom, yet at the same time new forms of social
and psychological slavery make their appearance. Although the world of today
has a very vivid awareness of its unity and of how one man depends on another
in needful solidarity, it is most grievously turn into opposing camps by
conflicting forces. For political, social, economic, racial and ideological
disputes still continue bitterly, and with them the peril of a war which would
reduce everything to ashes. True, there is a growing exchange of ideas, but the
very words by which key concepts are expressed take on quite different meanings
in diverse ideological systems. Finally, man painstakingly searches for a
better world, without a corresponding spiritual advancement.
Influenced by such a variety of
complexities, many of our contemporaries are kept from accurately identifying
permanent values and adjusting them properly to fresh discoveries. As a result,
buffeted between hope and anxiety and pressing one another with questions about
the present course of events, they are burdened down with uneasiness. This same
course of events leads men to look for answers; indeed, it forces them to do
so.
5. Today's spiritual agitation and
the changing conditions of life are part of a broader and deeper revolution. As
a result of the latter, intellectual formation is ever increasingly based on
the mathematical and natural sciences and on those dealing with man himself,
while in the practical order the technology which stems from these sciences takes
on mounting importance.
This scientific spirit has a new
kind of impact on the cultural sphere and on modes of thought. Technology is
now transforming the face of the earth, and is already trying to master outer
space. To a certain extent, the human intellect is also broadening its dominion
over time: over the past by means of historical knowledge; over the future, by
the art of projecting and by planning.
Advances in biology, psychology, and
the social sciences not only bring men hope of improved self-knowledge; in
conjunction with technical methods, they are helping men exert direct influence
on the life of social groups.
At the same time, the human race is
giving steadily-increasing thought to forecasting and regulating its own
population growth. History itself speeds along on so rapid a course that an
individual person can scarcely keep abreast of it. The destiny of the human
community has become all of a piece, where once the various groups of men had a
kind of private history of their own.
Thus, the human race has passed from
a rather static concept of reality to a more dynamic, evolutionary one. In
consequence there has arisen a new series of problems, a series as numerous as
can be, calling for efforts of analysis and synthesis.
6. By this very circumstance, the
traditional local communities such as families, clans, tribes, villages,
various groups and associations stemming from social contacts, experience more
thorough changes every day.
The industrial type of society is
gradually being spread, leading some nations to economic affluence, and
radically transforming ideas and social conditions established for centuries.
Likewise, the cult and pursuit of
city living has grown, either because of a multiplication of cities and their
inhabitants, or by a transplantation of city life to rural settings.
New and more efficient media of
social communication are contributing to the knowledge of events; by setting
off chain reactions they are giving the swiftest and widest possible
circulation to styles of thought and feeling.
It is also noteworthy how many men
are being induced to migrate on various counts, and are thereby changing their
manner of life. Thus a man's ties with his fellows are constantly being
multiplied, and at the same time "socialization" brings further ties,
without however always promoting appropriate personal development and truly
personal relationships.
This kind of evolution can be seen
more clearly in those nations which already enjoy the conveniences of economic
and technological progress, though it is also astir among peoples still
striving for such progress and eager to secure for themselves the advantages of
an industrialized and urbanized society. These peoples, especially those among
them who are attached to older traditions, are simultaneously undergoing a
movement toward more mature and personal exercise of liberty.
7. A change in attitudes and in
human structures frequently calls accepted values into question, especially
among young people, who have grown impatient on more than one occasion, and
indeed become rebels in their distress. Aware of their own influence in the
life of society, they want a part in it sooner. This frequently causes parents
and educators to experience greater difficulties day by day in discharging
their tasks. The institutions, laws and modes of thinking and feeling as handed
down from previous generations do not always seem to be well adapted to the
contemporary state of affairs; hence arises an upheaval in the manner and even
the norms of behavior.
Finally, these new conditions have
their impact on religion. On the one hand a more critical ability to
distinguish religion from a magical view of the world and from the
superstitions which still circulate purifies it and exacts day by day a more
personal and explicit adherence to faith. As a result many persons are
achieving a more vivid sense of God. On the other hand, growing numbers of
people are abandoning religion in practice. Unlike former days, the denial of
God or of religion, or the abandonment oœ them, are no longer unusual and
individual occurrences. For today it is not rare for such things to be
presented as requirements of scientific progress or of a certain new humanism.
In numerous places these views are voiced not only in the teachings of
philosophers, but on every side they influence literature, the arts, the
interpretation of the humanities and of history and civil laws themselves. As a
consequence, many people are shaken.
8. This development coming so
rapidly and often in a disorderly fashion, combined with keener awareness
itself of the inequalities in the world beget or intensify contradictions and
imbalances.
Within the individual person there
develops rather frequently an imbalance between an intellect which is modern in
practical matters and a theoretical system of thought which can neither master
the sum total of its ideas, nor arrange them adequately into a synthesis.
Likewise an imbalance arises between a concern for practicality and efficiency,
and the demands of moral conscience; also very often between the conditions of
collective existence and the requisites of personal thought, and even of
contemplation. At length there develops an imbalance between specialized human
activity and a comprehensive view of reality.
As for the family, discord results
from population, economic and social pressures, or from difficulties which
arise between succeeding generations, or from new social relationships between
men and women.
Differences crop up too between
races and between various kinds of social orders; between wealthy nations and
those which are less influential or are needy; finally, between international
institutions born of the popular desire for peace, and the ambition to
propagate one's own ideology, as well as collective greeds existing in nations
or other groups.
What results is mutual distrust,
enmities, conflicts and hardships. Of such is man at once the cause and the
victim.
9. Meanwhile the conviction grows
not only that humanity can and should increasingly consolidate its control over
creation, but even more, that it devolves on humanity to establish a political,
social and economic order which will growingly serve man and help individuals
as well as groups to affirm and develop the dignity proper to them.
As a result many persons are quite
aggressively demanding those benefits of which with vivid awareness they judge
themselves to be deprived either through injustice or unequal distribution.
Nations on the road to progress, like those recently made independent, desire
to participate in the goods of modern civilization, not only in the political
field but also economically, and to play their part freely on the world scene.
Still they continually fall behind while very often their economic and other
dependence on wealthier nations advances more rapidly.
People hounded by hunger call upon
those better off. Where they have not yet won it, women claim for themselves an
equity with men before the law and in fact. Laborers and farmers seek not only
to provide for the necessities of life, but to develop the gifts of their
personality by their labors and indeed to take part in regulating economic,
social, political and cultural life. Now, for the first time in human history
all people are convinced that the benefits of culture ought to be and actually
can be extended to everyone.
Still, beneath all these demands
lies a deeper and more widespread longing: persons and societies thirst for a
full and free life worthy of man; one in which they can subject to their own
welfare all that the modern world can offer them so abundantly. In addition,
nations try harder every day to bring about a kind of universal community.
Since all these things are so, the
modern world shows itself at once powerful and weak, capable of the noblest
deeds or the foulest; before it lies the path to freedom or to slavery, to
progress or retreat, to brotherhood or hatred. Moreover, man is becoming aware
that it is his responsibility to guide aright the forces which he has unleashed
and which can enslave him or minister to him. That is why he is putting
questions to himself.
10. The truth is that the imbalances
under which the modern world labors are linked with that more basic imbalance
which is rooted in the heart of man. For in man himself many elements wrestle
with one another. Thus, on the one hand, as a creature he experiences his
limitations in a multitude of ways; on the other he feels himself to be
boundless in his desires and summoned to a higher life. Pulled by manifold
attractions he is constantly forced to choose among them and renounce some.
Indeed, as a weak and sinful being, he often does what he would not, and fails
to do what he would.(1) Hence he suffers from internal divisions, and from
these flow so many and such great discords in society. No doubt many whose
lives are infected with a practical materialism are blinded against any sharp
insight into this kind of dramatic situation; or else, weighed down by
unhappiness they are prevented from giving the matter any thought. Thinking
they have found serenity in an interpretation of reality everywhere proposed
these days, many look forward to a genuine and total emancipation of humanity
wrought solely by human effort; they are convinced that the future rule of man
over the earth will satisfy every desire of his heart. Nor are there lacking
men who despair of any meaning to life and praise the boldness of those who
think that human existence is devoid of any inherent significance and strive to
confer a total meaning on it by their own ingenuity alone.
Nevertheless, in the face of the
modern development of the world, the number constantly swells of the people who
raise the most basic questions of recognize them with a new sharpness: what is
man? What is this sense of sorrow, of evil, of death, which continues to exist
despite so much progress? What purpose have these victories purchased at so
high a cost? What can man offer to society, what can he expect from it? What
follows this earthly life?
The Church firmly believes that
Christ, who died and was raised up for all,(2) can through His Spirit offer man
the light and the strength to measure up to his supreme destiny. Nor has any
other name under the heaven been given to man by which it is fitting for him to
be saved.(3) She likewise holds that in her most benign Lord and Master can be
found the key, the focal point and the goal of man, as well as of all human
history. The Church also maintains that beneath all changes there are many
realities which do not change and which have their ultimate foundation in
Christ, Who is the same yesterday and today, yes and forever.(4) Hence under
the light of Christ, the image of the unseen God, the firstborn of every
creature,(5) the council wishes to speak to all men in order to shed light on
the mystery of man and to cooperate in finding the solution to the outstanding
problems of our time.
PART I
THE CHURCH AND MAN'S CALLING
11. The People of God believes that
it is led by the Lord's Spirit, Who fills the earth. Motivated by this faith,
it labors to decipher authentic signs of God's presence and purpose in the
happenings, needs and desires in which this People has a part along with other
men of our age. For faith throws a new light on everything, manifests God's
design œor man's total vocation, and thus directs the mind to solutions which
are fully human.
This council, first of all, wishes
to assess in this light those values which are most highly prized today and to
relate them to their divine source. Insofar as they stem from endowments
conferred by God on man, these values are exceedingly good. Yet they are often
wrenched from their rightful function by the taint in man's heart, and hence
stand in need of purification.
What does the Church think of man?
What needs to be recommended for the upbuilding of contemporary society? What
is the ultimate significance of human activity throughout the world? People are
waiting for an answer to these questions. From the answers it will be
increasingly clear that the People of God and the human race in whose midst it
lives render service to each other. Thus the mission of the Church will show
its religious, and by that very fact, its supremely human character.
CHAPTER
I
THE
DIGNITY OF THE HUMAN PERSON
12. According to the almost
unanimous opinion of believers and unbelievers alike, all things on earth should
be related to man as their center and crown.
But what is man? About himself he
has expressed, and continues to express, many divergent and even contradictory
opinions. In these he often exalts himself as the absolute measure of all
things or debases himself to the point of despair. The result is doubt and
anxiety. The Church certainly understands these problems. Endowed with light
from God, she can offer solutions to them, so that man's true situation can be
portrayed and his defects explained, while at the same time his dignity and
destiny are justly acknowledged.
For Sacred Scripture teaches that
man was created "to the image of God," is capable of knowing and
loving his Creator, and was appointed by Him as master of all earthly
creatures(1) that he might subdue them and use them to God's glory.(2)
"What is man that you should care for him? You have made him little less
than the angels, and crowned him with glory and honor. You have given him rule
over the works of your hands, putting all things under his feet" (Ps.
8:5-7).
But God did not create man as a
solitary, for from the beginning "male and female he created them"
(Gen. 1:27). Their companionship produces the primary form of interpersonal
communion. For by his innermost nature man is a social being, and unless he
relates himself to others he can neither live nor develop his potential.
Therefore, as we read elsewhere in
Holy Scripture God saw "all that he had made, and it was very good"
(Gen. 1:31).
13. Although he was made by God in a
state of holiness, from the very onset of his history man abused his liberty,
at the urging of the Evil One. Man set himself against God and sought to attain
his goal apart from God. Although they knew God, they did not glorify Him as
God, but their senseless minds were darkened and they served the creature
rather than the Creator.(3) What divine revelation makes known to us agrees
with experience. Examining his heart, man finds that he has inclinations toward
evil too, and is engulfed by manifold ills which cannot come from his good
Creator. Often refusing to acknowledge God as his beginning, man has disrupted
also his proper relationship to his own ultimate goal as well as his whole
relationship toward himself and others and all created things.
Therefore man is split within
himself. As a result, all of human life, whether individual or collective,
shows itseLf to be a dramatic struggle between good and evil, between light and
darkness. Indeed, man finds that by himself he is incapable of battling the
assaults of evil successfully, so that everyone feels as though he is bound by
chains. But the Lord Himself came to free and strengthen man, renewing him
inwardly and casting out that "prince of this world" (John 12:31) who
held him in the bondage of sin.(4) For sin has diminished man, blocking his
path to fulfillment.
The call to grandeur and the depths
of misery, both of which are a part of human experience, find their ultimate
and simultaneous explanation in the light of this revelation.
14. Though made of body and soul, man
is one. Through his bodily composition he gathers to himself the elements of
the material world; thus they reach their crown through him, and through him
raise their voice in free praise of the Creator.(6) For this reason man is not
allowed to despise his bodily life, rather he is obliged to regard his body as
good and honorable since God has created it and will raise it up on the last
day. Nevertheless, wounded by sin, man experiences rebellious stirrings in his
body. But the very dignity of man postulates that man glorify God in his body
and forbid it to serve the evil inclinations of his heart.
Now, man is not wrong when he
regards himself as superior to bodily concerns, and as more than a speck of
nature or a nameless constituent of the city of man. For by his interior
qualities he outstrips the whole sum of mere things. He plunges into the depths
of reality whenever he enters into his own heart; God, Who probes the heart,(7)
awaits him there; there he discerns his proper destiny beneath tho eyes of God.
Thus, when he recognizes in himself a spiritual and immortal soul, he is not
being mocked by a fantasy born only of physical or social influences, but is
rather laying hold of the proper truth of the matter.
15. Man judges rightly that by his
intellect he surpasses the material universe, for he shares in the light of the
divine mind. By relentlessly employing his talents through the ages he has
indeed made progress in the practical sciences and in technology and the
liberal arts. In our times he has won superlative victories, especially in his
probing of the material world and in subjecting it to himself. Still he has
always searched for more penetrating truths, and finds them. For his
intelligence is not confined to observable data alone, but can with genuine
certitude attain to reality itself as knowable, though in consequence of sin
that certitude is partly obscured and weakened.
The intellectual nature of the human
person is perfected by wisdom and needs to be, for wisdom gently attracts the
mind of man to a quest and a love for what is true and good. Steeped in wisdom.
man passes through visible realities to those which are unseen.
Our era needs such wisdom more than
bygone ages if the discoveries made by man are to be further humanized. For the
future of the world stands in peril unless wiser men are forthcoming. It should
also be pointed out that many nations, poorer in economic goods, are quite rich
in wisdom and can offer noteworthy advantages to others.
It is, finally, through the gift of
the Holy Spirit that man comes by faith to the contemplation and appreciation
of the divine plan.(8)
16. In the depths of his conscience,
man detects a law which he does not impose upon himself, but which holds him to
obedience. Always summoning him to love good and avoid evil, the voice of
conscience when necessary speaks to his heart: do this, shun that. For man has
in his heart a law written by God; to obey it is the very dignity of man;
according to it he will be judged.(9) Conscience is the most secret core and
sanctuary of a man. There he is alone with God, Whose voice echoes in his
depths.(10) In a wonderful manner conscience reveals that law which is
fulfilled by love of God and neighbor.(11) In fidelity to conscience,
Christians are joined with the rest of men in the search for truth, and for the
genuine solution to the numerous problems which arise in the life of
individuals from social relationships. Hence the more right conscience holds
sway, the more persons and groups turn aside from blind choice and strive to be
guided by the objective norms of morality. Conscience frequently errs from
invincible ignorance without losing its dignity. The same cannot be said for a
man who cares but little for truth and goodness, or for a conscience which by
degrees grows practically sightless as a result of habitual sin.
17. Only in freedom can man direct
himself toward goodness. Our contemporaries make much of this freedom and
pursue it eagerly; and rightly to be sure. Often however they foster it
perversely as a license for doing whatever pleases them, even if it is evil.
For its part, authentic freedom is an exceptional sign of the divine image
within man. For God has willed that man remain "under the control of his
own decisions,"(12) so that he can seek his Creator spontaneously, and
come freely to utter and blissful perfection through loyalty to Him. Hence
man's dignity demands that he act according to a knowing and free choice that
is personally motivated and prompted from within, not under blind internal
impulse nor by mere external pressure. Man achieves such dignity when,
emancipating himself from all captivity to passion, he pursues his goal in a
spontaneous choice of what is good, and procures for himself through effective
and skilful action, apt helps to that end. Since man's freedom has been damaged
by sin, only by the aid of God's grace can he bring such a relationship with
God into full flower. Before the judgement seat of God each man must render an
account of his own life, whether he has done good or evil.(13)
18. It is in the face of death that
the riddle a human existence grows most acute. Not only is man tormented by
pain and by the advancing deterioration of his body, but even more so by a
dread of perpetual extinction. He rightly follows the intuition of his heart
when he abhors and repudiates the utter ruin and total disappearance of his own
person. He rebels against death because he bears in himself an eternal seed
which cannot be reduced to sheer matter. All the endeavors of technology,
though useful in the extreme, cannot calm his anxiety; for prolongation of
biological life is unable to satisfy that desire for higher life which is
inescapably lodged in his breast.
Although the mystery of death
utterly beggars the imagination, the Church has been taught by divine
revelation and firmly teaches that man has been created by God for a blissful
purpose beyond the reach of earthly misery. In addition, that bodily death from
which man would have been immune had he not sinned(14) will be vanquished,
according to the Christian faith, when man who was ruined by his own doing is
restored to wholeness by an almighty and merciful Saviour. For God has called
man and still calls him so that with his entire being he might be joined to Him
in an endless sharing of a divine life beyond all corruption. Christ won this
victory when He rose to life, for by His death He freed man from death. Hence
to every thoughtful man a solidly established faith provides the answer to his
anxiety about what the future holds for him. At the same time faith gives him
the power to be united in Christ with his loved ones who have already been
snatched away by death; faith arouses the hope that they have found true life
with God.
19. The root reason for human
dignity lies in man's call to communion with God. From the very circumstance of
his origin man is already invited to converse with God. For man would not exist
were he not created by Gods love and constantly preserved by it; and he cannot
live fully according to truth unless he freely acknowledges that love and
devotes himself to His Creator. Still, many of our contemporaries have never
recognized this intimate and vital link with God, or have explicitly rejected
it. Thus atheism must be accounted among the most serious problems of this age,
and is deserving of closer examination.
The word atheism is applied to
phenomena which are quite distinct from one another. For while God is expressly
denied by some, others believe that man can assert absolutely nothing about
Him. Still others use such a method to scrutinize the question of God as to
make it seem devoid of meaning. Many, unduly transgressing the limits of the
positive sciences, contend that everything can be explained by this kind of
scientific reasoning alone, or by contrast, they altogether disallow that there
is any absolute truth. Some laud man so extravagantly that their faith in God
lapses into a kind of anemia, though they seem more inclined to affirm man than
to deny God. Again some form for themselves such a fallacious idea of God that
when they repudiate this figment they are by no means rejecting the God of the
Gospel. Some never get to the point of raising questions about God, since they
seem to experience no religious stirrings nor do they see why they should
trouble themselves about religion. Moreover, atheism results not rarely from a
violent protest against the evil in this world, or from the absolute character
with which certain human values are unduly invested, and which thereby already
accords them the stature of God. Modern civilization itself often complicates
the approach to God not for any essential reason but because it is so heavily
engrossed in earthly affairs.
Undeniably, those who willfully shut
out God from their hearts and try to dodge religious questions are not following
the dictates of their consciences, and hence are not free of blame; yet
believers themselves frequently bear some responsibility for this situation.
For, taken as a whole, atheism is not a spontaneous development but stems from
a variety of causes, including a critical reaction against religious beliefs,
and in some places against the Christian religion in particular. Hence
believers can have more than a little to do with the birth of atheism. To the
extent that they neglect their own training in the faith, or teach erroneous
doctrine, or are deficient in their religious, moral or social life, they must
be said to conceal rather than reveal the authentic face of God and religion.
20. Modern atheism often takes on a
systematic expression which, in addition to other causes, stretches the desires
for human independence to such a point that it poses difficulties against any
kind of dependence on God. Those who profess atheism of this sort maintain that
it gives man freedom to be an end unto himself, the sole artisan and creator of
his own history. They claim that this freedom cannot be reconciled with the
affirmation of a Lord Who is author and purpose of all things, or at least that
this freedom makes such an affirmation altogether superfluous. Favoring this
doctrine can be the sense of power which modern technical progress generates in
man.
Not to be overlooked among the forms
of modern atheism is that which anticipates the liberation of man especially
through his economic and social emancipation. This form argues that by its
nature religion thwarts this liberation by arousing man's hope for a deceptive
future life, thereby diverting him from the constructing of the earthly city.
Consequently when the proponents of this doctrine gain governmental rower they
vigorously fight against religion, and promote atheism by using, especially in
the education of youth, those means of pressure which public power has at its
disposal.
21. In her loyal devotion to God and
men, the Church has already repudiated(16) and cannot cease repudiating,
sorrowfully but as firmly as possible, those poisonous doctrines and actions
which contradict reason and the common experience of humanity, and dethrone man
from his native excellence.
Still, she strives to detect in the
atheistic mind the hidden causes for the denial of God; conscious of how
weighty are the questions which atheism raises, and motivated by love for all
men, she believes these questions ought to be examined seriously and more
profoundly.
The Church holds that the recognition
of God is in no way hostile to man's dignity, since this dignity is rooted and
perfected in God. For man was made an intelligent and free member of society by
God Who created him, but even more important, he is called as a son to commune
with God and share in His happiness. She further teaches that a hope related to
the end of time does not diminish the importance of intervening duties but
rather undergirds the acquittal of them with fresh incentives. By contrast,
when a divine instruction and the hope of life eternal are wanting, man's
dignity is most grievously lacerated, as current events often attest; riddles
of life and death, of guilt and of grief go unsolved with the frequent result
that men succumb to despair.
Meanwhile every man remains to himself
an unsolved puzzle, however obscurely he may perceive it. For on certain
occasions no one can entirely escape the kind of self-questioning mentioned
earlier, especially when life's major events take place. To this questioning
only God fully and most certainly provides an answer as He summons man to
higher knowledge and humbler probing.
The remedy which must be applied to
atheism, however, is to be sought in a proper presentation of the Church's
teaching as well as in the integral life of the Church and her members. For it
is the function of the Church, led by the Holy Spirit Who renews and purifies
her ceaselessly,(17) to make God the Father and His Incarnate Son present and
in a sense visible. This result is achieved chiefly by the witness of a living
and mature faith, namely, one trained to see difficulties clearly and to master
them. Many martyrs have given luminous witness to this faith and continue to do
so. This faith needs to prove its fruitfulness by penetrating the believer's
entire life, including its worldly dimensions, and by activating him toward
justice and love, especially regarding the needy. What does the most reveal
God's presence, however, is the brotherly charity of the faithful who are
united in spirit as they work together for the faith of the Gospel(18) and who
prove themselves a sign of unity.
While rejecting atheism, root and
branch, the Church sincerely professes that all men, believers and unbelievers
alike, ought to work for the rightful betterment of this world in which all alike
live; such an ideal cannot be realized, however, apart from sincere and prudent
dialogue. Hence the Church protests against the distinction which some state
authorities make between believers and unbelievers, with prejudice to the
fundamental rights of the human person. The Church calls for the active liberty
of believers to build up in this world God's temple too. She courteously
invites atheists to examine the Gospel of Christ with an open mind.
Above all the Church known that her
message is in harmony with the most secret desires of the human heart when she
champions the dignity of the human vocation, restoring hope to those who have
already despaired of anything higher than their present lot. Far from
diminishing man, her message brings to his development light, life and freedom.
Apart from this message nothing will avail to fill up the heart of man:
"Thou hast made us for Thyself," O Lord, "and our hearts are
restless till they rest in Thee."(19)
22. The truth is that only in the
mystery of the incarnate Word does the mystery of man take on light. For Adam,
the first man, was a figure of Him Who was to come,(20) namely Christ the Lord.
Christ, the final Adam, by the revelation of the mystery of the Father and His
love, fully reveals man to man himself and makes his supreme calling clear. It
is not surprising, then, that in Him all the aforementioned truths find their
root and attain their crown.
He Who is "the image of the
invisible God" (Col. 1:15),(21) is Himself the perfect man. To the sons of
Adam He restores the divine likeness which had been disfigured from the first
sin onward. Since human nature as He assumed it was not annulled,(22) by that
very fact it has been raised up to a divine dignity in our respect too. For by
His incarnation the Son of God has united Himself in some fashion with every
man. He worked with human hands, He thought with a human mind, acted by human
choice(23) and loved with a human heart. Born of the Virgin Mary, He has truly
been made one of us, like us in all things except sin.(24)
As an innocent lamb He merited for
us life by the free shedding of His own blood. In Him God reconciled us(25) to
Himself and among ourselves; from bondage to the devil and sin He delivered us,
so that each one of us can say with the Apostle: The Son of God "loved me
and gave Himself up for me" (Gal. 2:20). By suffering for us He not only
provided us with an example for our imitation,(26) He blazed a trail, and if we
follow it, life and death are made holy and take on a new meaning.
The Christian man, conformed to the
likeness of that Son Who is the firstborn of many brothers,(27) received
"the first-fruits of the Spirit" (Rom. 8:23) by which he becomes
capable of discharging the new law of love.(28) Through this Spirit, who is
"the pledge of our inheritance" (Eph. 1:14), the whole man is renewed
from within, even to the achievement of "the redemption of the body"
(Rom. 8:23): "If the Spirit of him who raised Jesus from the death dwells
in you, then he who raised Jesus Christ from the dead will also bring to life
your mortal bodies because of his Spirit who dwells in you" (Rom.
8:11).(29) Pressing upon the Christian to be sure, are the need and the duty to
battle against evil through manifold tribulations and even to suffer death.
But, linked with the paschal mystery and patterned on the dying Christ, he will
hasten forward to resurrection in the strength which comes from hope.(30)
All this holds true not only for
Christians, but for all men of good will in whose hearts grace works in an
unseen way.(31) For, since Christ died for all men,(32) and since the ultimate
vocation of man is in fact one, and divine, we ought to believe that the Holy
Spirit in a manner known only to God offers to every man the possibility of
being associated with this paschal mystery.
Such is the mystery of man, and it
is a great one, as seen by believers in the light of Christian revelation.
Through Christ and in Christ, the riddles of sorrow and death grow meaningful.
Apart from His Gospel, they overwhelm us. Christ has risen, destroying death by
His death; He has lavished life upon us(33) so that, as sons in the Son, we can
cry out in the Spirit; Abba, Father(34)
CHAPTER
II
THE
COMMUNITY OF MANKIND
23. One of the salient features of
the modern world is the growing interdependence of men one on the other, a
development promoted chiefly by modern technical advances. Nevertheless
brotherly dialogue among men does not reach its perfection on the level of
technical progress, but on the deeper level of interpersonal relationships.
These demand a mutual respect for the full spiritual dignity of the person.
Christian revelation contributes greatly to the promotion of this communion
between persons, and at the same time leads us to a deeper understanding of the
laws of social life which the Creator has written into man's moral and
spiritual nature.
Since rather recent documents of the
Church's teaching authority have dealt at considerable length with Christian
doctrine about human society,(1) this council is merely going to call to mind
some of the more basic truths, treating their foundations under the light of
revelation. Then it will dwell more at length on certain of their implications
having special significance for our day.
24. God, Who has fatherly concern
for everyone, has willed that all men should constitute one family and treat
one another in a spirit of brotherhood. For having been created in the image of
God, Who "from one man has created the whole human race and made them live
all over the face of the earth" (Acts 17:26), all men are called to one
and the same goal, namely God Himself.
For this reason, love for God and
neighbor is the first and greatest commandment. Sacred Scripture, however,
teaches us that the love of God cannot be separated from love of neighbor:
"If there is any other commandment, it is summed up in this saying: Thou
shalt love thy neighbor as thyself.... Love therefore is the fulfillment of the
Law" (Rom. 13:9-10; cf. 1 John 4:20). To men growing daily more dependent
on one another, and to a world becoming more unified every day, this truth
proves to be of paramount importance.
Indeed, the Lord Jesus, when He
prayed to the Father, "that all may be one. . . as we are one" (John
17:21-22) opened up vistas closed to human reason, for He implied a certain likeness
between the union of the divine Persons, and the unity of God's sons in truth
and charity. This likeness reveals that man, who is the only creature on earth
which God willed for itself, cannot fully find himself except through a sincere
gift of himself.(2)
25. Man's social nature makes it
evident that the progress of the human person and the advance of society itself
hinge on one another. For the beginning, the subject and the goal of all social
institutions is and must be the human person which for its part and by its very
nature stands completely in need of social life.(3) Since this social life is
not something added on to man, through his dealings with others, through
reciprocal duties, and through fraternal dialogue he develops all his gifts and
is able to rise to his destiny.
Among those social ties which man
needs for his development some, like the family and political community, relate
with greater immediacy to his innermost nature; others originate rather from
his free decision. In our era, for various reasons, reciprocal ties and mutual
dependencies increase day by day and give rise to a variety of associations and
organizations, both public and private. This development, which is called
socialization, while certainly not without its dangers, brings with it many
advantages with respect to consolidating and increasing the qualities of the
human person, and safeguarding his rights.(4)
But if by this social life the human
person is greatly aided in responding to his destiny, even in its religious dimensions,
it cannot be denied that men are often diverted from doing good and spurred
toward and by the social circumstances in which they live and are immersed from
their birth. To be sure the disturbances which so frequently occur in the
social order result in part from the natural tensions of economic, political
and social forms. But at a deeper level they flow from man's pride and
selfishness, which contaminate even the social sphere. When the structure of
affairs is flawed by the consequences of sin, man, already born with a bent
toward evil, finds there new inducements to sin, which cannot be overcome
without strenuous efforts and the assistance of grace.
26. Every day human interdependence
grows more tightly drawn and spreads by degrees over the whole world. As a
result the common good, that is, the sum of those conditions of social life
which allow social groups and their individual members relatively thorough and
ready access to their own fulfillment, today takes on an increasingly universal
complexion and consequently involves rights and duties with respect to the
whole human race. Every social group must take account of the needs and
legitimate aspirations of other groups, and even of the general welfare of the
entire human family.(5)
At the same time, however, there is
a growing awareness of the exalted dignity proper to the human person, since he
stands above all things, and his rights and duties are universal and
inviolable. Therefore, there must be made available to all men everything
necessary for leading a life truly human, such as food, clothing, and shelter;
the right to choose a state of life freely and to found a family, the right to
education, to employment, to a good reputation, to respect, to appropriate
information, to activity in accord with the upright norm of one's own
conscience, to protection of privacy and rightful freedom. even in matters
religious.
Hence, the social order and its
development must invariably work to the benefit of the human person if the
disposition of affairs is to be subordinate to the personal realm and not
contrariwise, as the Lord indicated when He said that the Sabbath was made for
man, and not man for the Sabbath.(6)
This social order requires constant
improvement It must be founded on truth, built on justice and animated by love;
in freedom it should grow every day toward a more humane balance.(7) An
improvement in attitudes and abundant changes in society will have to take
place if these objectives are to be gained.
God's Spirit, Who with a marvelous
providence directs the unfolding of time and renews the face of the earth, is
not absent from this development. The ferment of the Gospel too has aroused and
continues to arouse in man's heart the irresistible requirements of his
dignity.
27. Coming down to practical and
particularly urgent consequences, this council lays stress on reverence for
man; everyone must consider his every neighbor without exception as another
self, taking into account first of all His life and the means necessary to
living it with dignity,(8) so as not to imitate the rich man who had no concern
for the poor man Lazarus.(9)
In our times a special obligation
binds us to make ourselves the neighbor of every person without exception. and
of actively helping him when he comes across our path, whether he be an old
person abandoned by all, a foreign laborer unjustly looked down upon, a
refugee, a child born of an unlawful union and wrongly suffering for a sin he
did not commit, or a hungry person who disturbs our conscience by recalling the
voice of the Lord, "As long as you did it for one of these the least of my
brethren, you did it for me" (Matt. 25:40).
Furthermore, whatever is opposed to
life itself, such as any type of murder, genocide, abortion, euthanasia or
wilful self-destruction, whatever violates the integrity of the human person,
such as mutilation, torments inflicted on body or mind, attempts to coerce the
will itself; whatever insults human dignity, such as subhuman living
conditions, arbitrary imprisonment, deportation, slavery, prostitution, the
selling of women and children; as well as disgraceful working conditions, where
men are treated as mere tools for profit, rather than as free and responsible
persons; all these things and others of their like are infamies indeed. They poison
human society, but they do more harm to those who practice them than those who
suffer from the injury. Moreover, they are supreme dishonor to the Creator.
28. Respect and love ought to be
extended also to those who think or act differently than we do in social,
political and even religious matters. In fact, the more deeply we come to
understand their ways of thinking through such courtesy and love, the more
easily will we be able to enter into dialogue with them.
This love and good will, to be sure,
must in no way render us indifferent to truth and goodness. Indeed love itself
impels the disciples of Christ to speak the saving truth to all men. But it is
necessary to distinguish between error, which always merits repudiation, and
the person in error, who never loses the dignity of being a person even when he
is flawed by false or inadequate religious notions.(10) God alone is the judge
and searcher of hearts, for that reason He forbids us to make judgments about
the internal guilt of anyone.(11)
The teaching of Christ even requires
that we forgive injuries,(12) and extends the law of love to include every
enemy, according to the command of the New Law: "You have heard that it
was said: Thou shalt love thy neighbor and hate thy enemy. But I say to you:
love your enemies, do good to those who hate you, and pray for those who
persecute and calumniate you" (Matt. S:43-44).
29. Since all men possess a rational
soul and are created in God's likeness, since they have the same nature and
origin, have been redeemed by Christ and enjoy the same divine calling and
destiny, the basic equality of all must receive increasingly greater
recognition.
True, all men are not alike from the
point of view of varying physical power and the diversity of intellectual and
moral resources. Nevertheless, with respect to the fundamental rights of the
person, every type of discrimination, whether social or cultural, whether based
on sex, race, color, social condition, language or religion, is to be overcome
and eradicated as contrary to God's intent. For in truth it must still be
regretted that fundamental personal rights are still not being universally
honored. Such is the case of a woman who is denied the right to choose a
husband freely, to embrace a state of life or to acquire an education or
cultural benefits equal to those recognized for men.
Therefore, although rightful
differences exist between men, the equal dignity of persons demands that a more
humane and just condition of life be brought about. For excessive economic and
social differences between the members of the one human family or population
groups cause scandal, and militate against social justice, equity, the dignity
of the human person, as well as social and international peace.
Human institutions, both private and
public, must labor to minister to the dignity and purpose of man. At the same
time let them put up a stubborn fight against any kind of slavery, whether
social or political, and safeguard the basic rights of man under every
political system. Indeed human institutions themselves must be accommodated by
degrees to the highest of all realities, spiritual ones, even though meanwhile,
a long enough time will be required before they arrive at the desired goal.
30. Profound and rapid changes make
it more necessary that no one ignoring the trend of events or drugged by
laziness, content himself with a merely individualistic morality. It grows
increasingly true that the obligations of justice and love are fulfilled only
if each person, contributing to the common good, according to his own abilities
and the needs of others, also promotes and assists the public and private
institutions dedicated to bettering the conditions of human life. Yet there are
those who, while possessing grand and rather noble sentiments, nevertheless in
reality live always as if they cared nothing for the needs of society. Many in
various places even make light of social laws and precepts, and do not hesitate
to resort to various frauds and deceptions in avoiding just taxes or other
debts due to society. Others think little of certain norms of social life, for
example those designed for the protection of health, or laws establishing speed
limits; they do not even avert to the fact that by such indifference they
imperil their own life and that of others.
Let everyone consider it his sacred
obligation to esteem and observe social necessities as belonging ta the primary
duties of modern man. For the more unified the world becomes, the more plainly
do the offices of men extend beyond particular groups and spread by degrees to
the whole world. But this development cannot occur unless individual men and
their associations cultivate in themselves the moral and social virtues, and
promote them in society; thus, with the needed help of divine grace men who are
truly new and artisans of a new humanity can be forthcoming
31. In order for individual men to
discharge with greater exactness the obligations of their conscience toward
themselves and the various group to which they belong, they must be carefully
educated to a higher degree of culture through the use of the immense resources
available today to the human race. Above all the education of youth from every
social background has to be undertaken, so that there can be produced not only
men and women of refined talents, but those great-souled persons who are so
desperately required by our times.
Now a man can scarcely arrive at the
needed sense of responsibility, unless his living conditions allow him to
become conscious of his dignity, and to rise to.(15) destiny by spending
himself for God and for others. But human freedom is often crippled when a man
encounters extreme poverty just as it withers when he indulges in too many of
life's comforts and imprisons himself in a kind of splendid isolation. Freedom
acquires new strength, by contrast, when a man consents to the unavoidable
requirements of social life, takes on the manifold demands of human
partnership, and commits himself to the service of the human community.
Hence, the will to play one's role
in common endeavors should be everywhere encouraged. Praise is due to those
national procedures which allow the largest possible number of citizens to
participate in public affairs with genuine freedom. Account must be taken, to
be sure, of the actual conditions of each people and the decisiveness required
by public authority. If every citizen is to feel inclined to take part in the
activities of the various groups which make up the social body, these must
offer advantages which will attract members and dispose them to serve others.
We can justly consider that the future of humanity lies in the hands of those
who are strong enough to provide coming generations with reasons for living and
hoping.
32. As God did not create man for
life in isolation, but for the formation of social unity, so also "it has
pleased God to make men holy and save them not merely as individuals, without
bond or link between them, but by making them into a single people, a people
which acknowledges Him in truth and serves Him in holiness."(13) So from
the beginning of salvation history He has chosen men not just as individuals
but as members of a certain community. Revealing His mind to them, God called
these chosen ones "His people" (Ex. 3:7-12), and even made a covenant
with them on Sinai.(14)
This communitarian character is
developed and consummated in the work of Jesus Christ. For the very Word made
flesh willed to share in the human fellowship. He was present at the wedding of
Cana, visited the house of Zacchaeus, ate with publicans and sinners. He
revealed the love of the Father and the sublime vocation of man in terms of the
most common of social realities and by making use of the speech and the imagery
of plain everyday life. Willingly obeying' the laws of his country He
sanctified those human ties, especially family ones, which are the source of
social structures. He chose to lead the life proper to an artisan of His time
and place.
In His preaching He clearly taught
the sons of God to treat one another as brothers. In His prayers He pleaded that
all His disciples might be "one." Indeed as the redeemer of all, He
offered Himself for all even to point of death. "Greater love than this no
one has, that one lay down his life for his friends" (John 15:13). He
commanded His Apostles to preach to all peoples the Gospel's message that the
human race was to become the Family of God, in which the fullness of the Law
would be love.
As the firstborn of many brethren
and by the giving of His Spirit, He founded after His death and resurrection a
new brotherly community composed of all those who receive Him in faith and in
love. This He did through His Body. which is the Church. There everyone, as
members one of the other. would render mutual service according to the
different gifts bestowed on each.
This solidarity must be constantly
increased until that day on which it will be brought to perfection. Then, saved
by grace, men will offer flawless glory to God as a family beloved of God and
of Christ their Brother.
CHAPTER
III
MAN'S
ACTIVITY THROUGHOUT THE WORLD
33. Through his labors and his
native endowments man has ceaselessly striven to better his life. Today,
however, especially with the help of science and technology, he has extended
his mastery over nearly the whole of nature and continues to do so. Thanks to
increased opportunities for many kinds of social contact among nations, a human
family is gradually recognizing that it comprises a single world community and
is making itself so. Hence many benefits once looked for, especially from
heavenly powers, man has now enterprisingly procured for himself
In the face of these immense efforts
which already preoccupy the whole human race, men agitate numerous questions
among themselves. What is the meaning and value of this feverish activity? How
should all these things be used? To the achievement of what goal are the
strivings of individuals and societies heading? The Church guards the heritage
of God's word and draws from it moral and religious principles without always
having at hand the solution to particular problems. As such she desires to add
the light of revealed truth to mankind's store of experience. so that the path
which humanity has taken in recent times will not be a dark one.
34. Throughout the course of the
centuries, men have labored to better the circumstances of their lives through
a monumental amount of individual and collective effort. To believers, this
point is settled: considered in itself, this human activity accords with God's
will. For man, created to God's image, received a mandate to subject to himself
the earth and all it contains, and to govern the world with justice and
holiness;(1) a mandate to relate himself and the totality of things to Him Who
was to be acknowledged as the Lord and Creator of all. Thus, by the subjection
of all things to man, the name of God would be wonderful in all the earth.(2)
This mandate concerns the whole of
everyday activity as well. For while providing the substance of life for
themselves and their families, men and women are performing their activities in
a way which appropriately benefits society. They can justly consider that by
their labor they are unfolding the Creator's work, consulting the advantages of
their brother men, and are contributing by their personal industry to the
realization history of the divine plan.(3)
Thus, far from thinking that works
produced by man's own talent and energy are in opposition to God's power, and
that the rational creature exists as a kind of rival to the Creator, Christians
are convinced that the triumphs of the human race are a sign of God's grace and
the flowering of His own mysterious design. For the greater man's power
becomes, the farther his individual and community responsibility extends. Hence
it is clear that men are not deterred by the Christian message from building up
the world, or impelled to neglect the welfare of their fellows, but that they
are rather more stringently bound to do these very things.(4)
35. Human activity, to be sure,
takes its significance from its relationship to man. Just as it proceeds from
man, so it is ordered toward man. For when a man works he not only alters
things and society, he develops himself as well. He learns much, he cultivates
his resources, he goes outside of himself and beyond himself. Rightly
understood this kind of growth is of greater value than any external riches
which can be garnered. A man is more precious for what he is than for what he
has.(5) Similarly, all that men do to obtain greater justice, wider
brotherhood, a more humane disposition of social relationships has greater
worth than technical advances. For these advances can supply the material for
human progress, but of themselves alone they can never actually bring it about.
Hence, the norm of human activity is
this: that in accord with the divine plan and will, it harmonize with the
genuine good of the human race, and that it allow men as individuals and as
members of society to pursue their total vocation and fulfill it.
36. Now many of our contemporaries
seem to fear that a closer bond between human activity and religion will work
against the independence of men, of societies, or of the sciences.
If by the autonomy of earthly
affairs we mean that created things and societies themselves enjoy their own
laws and values which must be gradually deciphered, put to use, and regulated
by men, then it is entirely right to demand that autonomy. Such is not merely
required by modern man, but harmonizes also with the will of the Creator. For
by the very circumstance of their having been created, all things are endowed with
their own stability, truth, goodness, proper laws and order. Man must respect
these as he isolates them by the appropriate methods of the individual sciences
or arts. Therefore if methodical investigation within every branch of learning
is carried out in a genuinely scientific manner and in accord with moral norms,
it never truly conflicts with faith, for earthly matters and the concerns of
faith derive from the same God. (6) Indeed whoever labors to penetrate the
secrets of reality with a humble and steady mind, even though he is unaware of
the fact, is nevertheless being led by the hand of God, who holds all things in
existence, and gives them their identity. Consequently, we cannot but deplore
certain habits of mind, which are sometimes found too among Christians, which
do not sufficiently attend to the rightful independence of science and which,
from the arguments and controversies they spark, lead many minds to conclude
that faith and science are mutually opposed.(7)
But if the expression, the independence
of temporal affairs, is taken to mean that created things do not depend on God,
and that man can use them without any reference to their Creator, anyone who
acknowledges God will see how false such a meaning is. For without the Creator
the creature would disappear. For their part, however, all believers of
whatever religion always hear His revealing voice in the discourse of
creatures. When God is forgotten, however, the creature itself grows
unintelligible.
37. Sacred Scripture teaches the
human family what the experience of the ages confirms: that while human
progress is a great advantage to man, it brings with it a strong temptation.
For when the order of values is jumbled and bad is mixed with the good,
individuals and groups pay heed solely to their own interests, and not to those
of others. Thus it happens that the world ceases to be a place of true
brotherhood. In our own day, the magnified power of humanity threatens to
destroy the race itself.
For a monumental struggle against
the powers of darkness pervades the whole history of man. The battle was joined
from the very origins of the world and will continue until the last day, as the
Lord has attested.(8) Caught in this conflict, man is obliged to wrestle
constantly if he is to cling to what is good, nor can he achieve his own
integrity without great efforts and the help of God's grace.
That is why Christ's Church,
trusting in the design of the Creator, acknowledges that human progress can
serve man's true happiness, yet she cannot help echoing the Apostle's warning:
"Be not conformed to this world" (Rom. 12:2). Here by the world is
meant that spirit of vanity and malice which transforms into an instrument of
sin those human energies intended for the service of God and man.
Hence if anyone wants to know how
this unhappy situation can be overcome, Christians will tell him that all human
activity, constantly imperiled by man's pride and deranged self-love, must be
purified and perfected by the power of Christ's cross and resurrection. For
redeemed by Christ and made a new creature in the Holy Spirit, man is able to
love the things themselves created by God, and ought to do so. He can receive
them from God and respect and reverence them as flowing constantly from the
hand of God. Grateful to his Benefactor for these creatures, using and enjoying
them in detachment and liberty of spirit, man is led forward into a true
possession of them, as having nothing, yet possessing all things.(9) "All
are yours, and you are Christ's, and Christ is God's" (1 Cor. 3:22-23).
38. For God's Word, through Whom all
things were made, was Himself made flesh and dwelt on the earth of men.(10)
Thus He entered the world's history as a perfect man, taking that history up
into Himself and summarizing it.(11) He Himself revealed to us that "God
is love" (1 John 4:8) and at the same time taught us that the new command
of love was the basic law of human perfection and hence of to worlds
transformation.
To those, therefore, who believe in
divine love, He gives assurance that the way of love lies open to men and that
the effort to establish a universal brotherhood is not a hopeless one. He
cautions them at the same time that this charity is not something to be
reserved for important matters, but must be pursued chiefly in the ordinary
circumstances of life. Undergoing death itself for all of us sinners,(12) He
taught us by example that we too must shoulder that cross which the world and
the flesh inflict upon those who search after peace and justice. Appointed Lord
by His resurrection and given plenary power in heaven and on earth,(13) Christ
is now at work in the hearts of men through the energy of His Holy Spirit,
arousing not only a desire for the age to come, but by that very fact
animating, purifying and strengthening those noble longings too by which the
human family makes its life more human and strives to render the whole earth
submissive to this goal.
Now, the gifts of the Spirit are
diverse: while He calls some to give clear witness to the desire for a heavenly
home and to keep that desire green among the human family, He summons others to
dedicate themselves to the earthly service of men and to make ready the
material of the celestial realm by this ministry of theirs. Yet He frees all of
them so that by putting aside love of self and bringing all earthly resources
into the service of human life they can devote themselves to that future when
humanity itself will become an offering accepted by God.(14)
The Lord left behind a pledge of
this hope and strength for life's journey in that sacrament of faith where
natural elements refined by man are gloriously changed into His Body and Blood,
providing a meal of brotherly solidarity and a foretaste of the heavenly
banquet.
39. We do not know the time for the
consummation of the earth and of humanity,(15) nor do we know how all things
will be transformed. As deformed by sin, the shape of this world will pass
away;(16) but we are taught that God is preparing a new dwelling place and a
new earth where justice will abide,(17) and whose blessedness will answer and
surpass all the longings for peace which spring up in the human heart.(18)
Then, with death overcome, the sons of God will be raised up in Christ, and
what was sown in weakness and corruption will be invested with
incorruptibility.(19) Enduring with charity and its fruits,(20) all that
creation(21) which God made on man's account will be unchained from the bondage
of vanity.
Therefore, while we are warned that
it profits a man nothing if he gain the whole world and lose himself,(22) the
expectation of a new earth must not weaken but rather stimulate our concern for
cultivating this one. For here grows the body of a new human family, a body
which even now is able to give some kind of foreshadowing of the new age.
Hence, while earthly progress must
be carefully distinguished from the growth of Christ's kingdom, to the extent
that the former can contribute to the better ordering of human society, it is
of vital concern to the Kingdom of God.(23)
For after we have obeyed the Lord,
and in His Spirit nurtured on earth the values of human dignity, brotherhood
and freedom, and indeed all the good fruits of our nature and enterprise, we
will find them again, but freed of stain, burnished and transfigured, when
Christ hands over to the Father: "a kingdom eternal and universal, a
kingdom of truth and life, of holiness and grace, of justice, love and
peace."(24) On this earth that Kingdom is already present in mystery. When
the Lord returns it will be brought into full flower.
CHAPTER
IV
THE ROLE OF THE CHURCH IN THE MODERN WORLD
THE ROLE OF THE CHURCH IN THE MODERN WORLD
40. Everything we have said about
the dignity of the human person, and about the human community and the profound
meaning of human activity, lays the foundation for the relationship between the
Church and the world, and provides the basis for dialogue between them.(1) In
this chapter, presupposing everything which has already been said by this
council concerning the mystery of the Church, we must now consider this same
Church inasmuch as she exists in the world, living and acting with it.
Coming forth from the eternal
Father's love,(2) founded in time by Christ the Redeemer and made one in the
Holy Spirit,(3) the Church has a saving and an eschatological purpose which can
be fully attained only in the future world. But she is already present in this
world, and is composed of men, that is, of members of the earthly city who have
a call to form the family of God's children during the present history of the
human race, and to keep increasing it until the Lord returns. United on behalf
of heavenly values and enriched by them, this family has been "constituted
and structured as a society in this world"(4) by Christ, and is equipped
"by appropriate means for visible and social union."(5) Thus the
Church, at once "a visible association and a spiritual community,"(6)
goes forward together with humanity and experiences the same earthly lot which
the world does. She serves as a leaven and as a kind of soul for human
society(7) as it is to be renewed in Christ and transformed into God's family.
That the earthly and the heavenly
city penetrate each other is a fact accessible to faith alone; it remains a
mystery of human history, which sin will keep in great disarray until the
splendor of God's sons, is fully revealed. Pursuing the saving purpose which is
proper to her, the Church does not only communicate divine life to men but in
some way casts the reflected light of that life over the entire earth, most of
all by its healing and elevating impact on the dignity of the person, by the
way in which it strengthens the seams of human society and imbues the everyday
activity of men with a deeper meaning and importance. Thus through her
individual matters and her whole community, the Church believes she can
contribute greatly toward making the family of man and its history more human.
In addition, the Catholic Church
gladly holds in high esteem the things which other Christian Churches and
ecclesial communities have done or are doing cooperatively by way of achieving
the same goal. At the same time, she is convinced that she can be abundantly
and variously helped by the world in the matter of preparing the ground for the
Gospel. This help she gains from the talents and industry of individuals and
from human society as a whole. The council now sets forth certain general
principles for the proper fostering of this mutual exchange and assistance in
concerns which are in some way common to the world and the Church.
41. Modern man is on the road to a
more thorough development of his own personality, and to a growing discovery
and vindication of his own rights. Since it has been entrusted to the Church to
reveal the mystery of God, Who is the ultimate goal of man, she opens up to man
at the same time the meaning of his own existence, that is, the innermost truth
about himself. The Church truly knows that only God, Whom she serves, meets the
deepest longings of the human heart, which is never fully satisfied by what
this world has to offer.
She also knows that man is
constantly worked upon by God's spirit, and hence can never be altogether
indifferent to the problems of religion. The experience of past ages proves
this, as do numerous indications in our own times. For man will always yearn to
know, at least in an obscure way, what is the meaning of his life, of his
activity, of his death. The very presence of the Church recalls these problems
to his mind. But only God, Who created man to His own image and ransomed him
from sin, provides the most adequate answer to the questions, and this Ho does
through what He has revealed in Christ His Son, Who became man. Whoever follows
after Christ, the perfect man, becomes himself more of a man. For by His
incarnation the Father's Word assumed, and sanctified through His cross and
resurrection, the whole of man, body and soul, and through that totality the
whole of nature created by God for man's use.
Thanks to this belief, the Church
can anchor the dignity of human nature against all tides of opinion, for
example those welch undervalue the human body or idolize it. By no human law
can the personal dignity and liberty of man be so aptly safeguarded as by the
Gospel of Christ which has been entrusted to the Church. For this Gospel
announces and proclaims the freedom of the sons of God, and repudiates all the
bondage which ultimately results from sin.(8) (cf. Rom. 8:14-17); it has a
sacred reverence for the dignity of conscience and its freedom of choice,
constantly advises that all human talents be employed in God's service and
men's, and, finally, commends all to the charity of all (cf. Matt. 22:39).(9)
This agrees with the basic law of
the Christian dispensation. For though the same God is Savior and Creator, Lord
of human history as well as of salvation history, in the divine arrangement
itself, the rightful autonomy of the creature, and particularly of man is not
withdrawn, but is rather re-established in its own dignity and strengthened in
it.
The Church, therefore, by virtue of
the Gospel committed to her, proclaims the rights of man; she acknowledges and
greatly esteems the dynamic movements of today by which these rights are
everywhere fostered. Yet these movements must be penetrated by the spirit of
the Gospel and protected against any kind of false autonomy. For we are tempted
to think that our personal rights are fully ensured only when we are exempt
from every requirement of divine law. But this way lies not the maintenance of
the dignity of the human person, but its annihilation.
42. The union of the human family is
greatly fortified and fulfilled by the unity, founded on Christ,(10) of the
family of God's sons.
Christ, to be sure, gave His Church
no proper mission in the political, economic or social order. The purpose which
He set before her is a religious one.(11) But out of this religious mission
itself come a function, a light and an energy which can serve to structure and
consolidate the human community according to the divine law. As a matter of
fact, when circumstances of time and place produce the need, she can and indeed
should initiate activities on behalf of all men, especially those designed for
the needy, such as the works of mercy and similar undertakings.
The Church recognizes that worthy
elements are found in today's social movements, especially an evolution toward
unity, a process of wholesome socialization and of association in civic and
economic realms. The promotion of unity belongs to the innermost nature of the
Church, for she is, "thanks to her relationship with Christ, a sacramental
sign and an instrument of intimate union with God, and of the unity of the
whole human race."(12) Thus she shows the world that an authentic union,
social and external, results from a union of minds and hearts, namely from that
faith and charity by which her own unity is unbreakably rooted in the Holy
Spirit. For the force which the Church can inject into the modern society of
man consists in that faith and charity put into vital practice, not in any
external dominion exercised by merely human means.
Moreover, since in virtue of her
mission and nature she is bound to no particular form of human culture, nor to
any political, economic or social system, the Church by her very universality
can be a very close bond between diverse human communities and nations,
provided these trust her and truly acknowledge her right to true freedom in
fulfilling her mission. For this reason, the Church admonishes her own sons,
but also humanity as a whole, to overcome all strife between nations and race
in this family spirit of God's children, an in the same way, to give internal
strength to human associations which are just.
With great respect, therefore, this
council regards all the true, good and just elements inherent in the very wide
variety of institutions which the human race has established for itself and
constantly continues to establish. The council affirms, moreover, that the
Church is willing to assist and promote all these institutions to the extent
that such a service depends on her and can be associated with her mission. She
has no fiercer desire than that in pursuit of the welfare of all she may be
able to develop herself freely under any kind of government which grants
recognition to the basic rights of person and family, to the demands of the
common good and to the free exercise of her own mission.
43. This council exhorts Christians,
as citizens of two cities, to strive to discharge their earthly duties
conscientiously and in response he Gospel spirit. They are mistaken who,
knowing that we have here no abiding city but seek one which is to come,(13)
think that they may therefore shirk their earthly responsibilities. For they
are forgetting that by the faith itself they are more obliged than ever to
measure up to these duties, each according to his proper vocation.(14) Nor, on
the contrary, are they any less wide of the mark who think that religion
consists in acts of worship alone and in the discharge of certain moral
obligations, and who imagine they can plunge themselves into earthly affairs in
such a way as to imply that these are altogether divorced from the religious
life. This split between the faith which many profess and their daily lives
deserves to be counted among the more serious errors of our age. Long since,
the Prophets of the Old Testament fought vehemently against this scandal(15)
and even more so did Jesus Christ Himself in the New Testament threaten it with
grave punishments.(16) Therefore, let there be no false opposition between
professional and social activities on the one part, and religious life on the
other. The Christian who neglects his temporal duties, neglects his duties
toward his neighbor and even God, and jeopardizes his eternal salvation.
Christians should rather rejoice that, following the example of Christ Who
worked as an artisan, they are free to give proper exercise to all their
earthly activities and to their humane, domestic, professional, social and
technical enterprises by gathering them into one vital synthesis with religious
values, under whose supreme direction all things are harmonized unto God's
glory.
Secular duties and activities belong
properly although not exclusively to laymen. Therefore acting as citizens in
the world, whether individually or socially, they will keep the laws proper to
each discipline, and labor to equip themselves with a genuine expertise in
their various fields. They will gladly work with men seeking the same goals.
Acknowledging the demands of faith and endowed with its force, they will
unhesitatingly devise new enterprises, where they are appropriate, and put them
into action. Laymen should also know that it is generally the function of their
well-formed Christian conscience to see that the divine law is inscribed in the
life of the earthly city; from priests they may look for spiritual light and
nourishment. Let the layman not imagine that his pastors are always such
experts, that to every problem which arises, however complicated, they can
readily give him a concrete solution, or even that such is their mission.
Rather, enlightened by Christian wisdom and giving close attention to the
teaching authority of the Church,(17) let the layman take on his own
distinctive role.
Often enough the Christian view of
things will itself suggest some specific solution in certain circumstances. Yet
it happens rather frequently, and legitimately so, that with equal sincerity
some of the faithful will disagree with others on a given matter. Even against
the intentions of their proponents, however, solutions proposed on one side or
another may be easily confused by many people with the Gospel message. Hence it
is necessary for people to remember that no one is allowed in the
aforementioned situations to appropriate the Church's authority for his
opinion. They should always try to enlighten one another through honest
discussion, preserving mutual charity and caring above all for the common good.
Since they have an active role to
play in the whole life of the Church, laymen are not only bound to penetrate
the world with a Christian spirit, but are also called to be witnesses to
Christ in all things in the midst of human society.
Bishops, to whom is assigned the
task of ruling the Church of God, should, together with their priests, so
preach the news of Christ that all the earthly activities of the faithful will
be bathed in the light of the Gospel. All pastors should remember too that by their
daily conduct and concern(18) they are revealing the face of the Church to the
world, and men will judge the power and truth of the Christian message thereby.
By their lives and speech, in union with Religious and their faithful, may they
demonstrate that even now the Church by her presence alone and by all the gifts
which she contains, is an unspent fountain of those virtues which the modern
world needs the most.
By unremitting study they should fit
themselves to do their part in establishing dialogue with the world and with
men of all shades of opinion. Above all let them take to heart the words which
this council has spoken: "Since humanity today increasingly moves toward
civil, economic and social unity, it is more than ever necessary that priests, with
joint concern and energy, and under the guidance of the bishops and the supreme
pontiff, erase every cause of division, so that the whole human race may be led
to the unity of God's family."(19)
Although by the power of the Holy
Spirit the Church will remain the faithful spouse of her Lord and will never
cease to be the sign of salvation on earth, still she is very well aware that
among her members,(20) both clerical and lay, some have been unfaithful to the
Spirit of God during the course of many centuries; in the present age, too, it
does not escape the Church how great a distance lies between the message she
offers and the human failings of those to whom the Gospel is entrusted.
Whatever be the judgement of history on these defects, we ought to be conscious
of them, and struggle against them energetically, lest they inflict harm on
spread of the Gospel. The Church also realizes that in working out her
relationship with the world she always has great need of the ripening which
comes with the experience of the centuries. Led by the Holy Spirit, Mother
Church unceasingly exhorts her sons "to purify and renew themselves so
that the sign of Christ can shine more brightly on the face
44. Just as it is in the world's
interest to acknowledge the Church as an historical reality, and to recognize
her good influence, so the Church herself knows how richly she has profited by
the history and development of humanity.
The experience of past ages, the
progress of the sciences, and the treasures hidden in the various forms of
human culture, by all of which the nature of man himself is more clearly
revealed and new roads to truth are opened, these profit the Church, too. For,
from the beginning of her history she has learned to express the message of
Christ with the help of the ideas and terminology of various philosophers, and
and has tried to clarify it with their wisdom, too. Her purpose has been to
adapt the Gospel to the grasp of all as well as to the needs of the learned,
insofar as such was appropriate. Indeed this accommodated preaching of the
revealed word ought to remain the law of all evangelization. For thus the
ability to express Christ's message in its own way is developed in each nation,
and at the same time there is fostered a living exchange between the Church
and' the diverse cultures of people.(22) To promote such exchange, especially
in our days, the Church requires the special help of those who live in the
world, are versed in different institutions and specialties, and grasp their
innermost significance in the eyes of both believers and unbelievers. With the
help of the Holy Spirit, it is the task of the entire People of God, especially
pastors and theologians, to hear, distinguish and interpret the many voices of
our age, and to judge them in the light of the divine word, so that revealed
truth can always be more deeply penetrated, better understood and set forth to
greater advantage.
Since the Church has a visible and
social structure as a sign of her unity in Christ, she can and ought to be
enriched by the development of human social life, not that there is any lack in
the constitution given her by Christ, but that she can understand it more
penetratingly, express it better, and adjust it more successfully to our times.
Moreover, she gratefully understands that in her community life no less than in
her individual sons, she receives a variety of helps from men of every rank and
condition, for whoever promotes the human community at the family level,
culturally, in its economic, social and political dimensions, both nationally
and internationally, such a one, according to God's design, is contributing
greatly to the Church as well, to the extent that she depends on things outside
herself. Indeed, the Church admits that she has greatly profited and still profits
from the antagonism of those who oppose or who persecute her.(23)
45. While helping the world and
receiving many benefits from it, the Church has a single intention: that God's
kingdom may come, and that the salvation of the whole human race may come to
pass. For every benefit which the People of God during its earthly pilgrimage
can offer to the human family stems from the fact that the Church is "the
universal sacrament of salvation",(24) simultaneously manifesting and a
rising the mystery of God's love.
For God's Word, by whom all things
were made, was Himself made flesh so that as perfect man He might save all men
and sum up all things in Himself. The Lord is the goal of human history, the
focal point of the longings of history and of civilization, the center of the
human race, the joy of every heart and the answer to all its yearnings.(25) He
it is Whom the Father raised from the dead, lifted on high and stationed at His
right hand, making Him judge of the living and the dead. Enlivened and united in
His Spirit, we journey toward the consummation of human history, one which
fully accords with the counsel of God's love: "To reestablish all things
in Christ, both those in the heavens and those on the earth" (Eph. 11:10).
The Lord Himself speaks: "Behold
I come quickly And my reward is with me, to render to each one according to his
works. I am the Alpha and the Omega, the first and the last, tho beginning and
the end (Act;. 22;12-13).
PART II
SOME PROBLEMS OF SPECIAL URGENCY
46. This council has set forth the
dignity of the human person, and the work which men have been destined to
undertake throughout the world both as individuals and as members of society.
There are a number of particularly urgent needs characterizing the present age,
needs which go to the roots of the human race. To a consideration of these in
the light of the Gospel and of human experience, the council would now direct
the attention of all.
Of the many subjects arousing
universal concern today, it may be helpful to concentrate on these: marriage
and the family, human progress, life in its economic, social and political
dimensions, the bonds between the family of nations, and peace. On each of
these may there shine the radiant ideals proclaimed by Christ. By these ideals
may Christians be led, and all mankind enlightened, as they search for answers
to questions of such complexity.
CHAPTER
I
FOSTERING
THE NOBILITY OF MARRIAGE AND THE FAMILY
47. The well-being of the individual
person and of human and Christian society is intimately linked with the healthy
condition of that community produced by marriage and family. Hence Christians
and all men who hold this community in high esteem sincerely rejoice in the
various ways by which men today find help in fostering this community of love
and perfecting its life, and by which parents are assisted in their lofty
calling. Those who rejoice in such aids look for additional benefits from them
and labor to bring them about.
Yet the excellence of this
institution is not everywhere reflected with equal brilliance, since polygamy,
the plague of divorce, so-called free love and other disfigurements have an
obscuring effect. In addition, married love is too often profaned by excessive
self-love, the worship of pleasure and illicit practices against human
generation. Moreover, serious disturbances are caused in families by modern
economic conditions, by influences at once social and psychological, and by the
demands of civil society. Finally, in certain parts of the world problems
resulting from population growth are generating concern.
All these situations have produced
anxiety of consciences. Yet, the power and strength of the institution of
marriage and family can also be seen in the fact that time and again, despite
the difficulties produced, the profound changes in modern society reveal the
true character of this institution in one way or another.
Therefore, by presenting certain key
points of Church doctrine in a clearer light, this sacred synod wishes to offer
guidance and support to those Christians and other men who are trying to
preserve the holiness and to foster the natural dignity of the married state
and its superlative value.
48. The intimate partnership of
married life and love has been established by the Creator and qualified by His
laws, and is rooted in the jugal covenant of irrevocable personal consent.
Hence by that human act whereby spouses mutually bestow and accept each other a
relationship arises which by divine will and in the eyes of society too is a
lasting one. For the good of the spouses and their off-springs as well as of
society, the existence of the sacred bond no longer depends on human decisions
alone. For, God Himself is the author of matrimony, endowed as it is with
various benefits and purposes.(1) All of these have a very decisive bearing on
the continuation of the human race, on the personal development and eternal
destiny of the individual members of a family, and on the dignity, stability,
peace and prosperity of the family itself and of human society as a whole. By
their very nature, the institution of matrimony itself and conjugal love are
ordained for the procreation and education of children, and find in them their
ultimate crown. Thus a man and a woman, who by their compact of conjugal love
"are no longer two, but one flesh" (Matt. 19:ff), render mutual help
and service to each other through an intimate union of their persons and of
their actions. Through this union they experience the meaning of their oneness
and attain to it with growing perfection day by day. As a mutual gift of two
persons, this intimate union and the good of the children impose total fidelity
on the spouses and argue for an unbreakable oneness between them.(2)
Christ the Lord abundantly blessed
this many-faceted love, welling up as it does from the fountain of divine love
and structured as it is on the model of His union with His Church. For as God
of old made Himself present(3) to His people through a covenant of love and
fidelity, so now the Savior of men and the Spouse(4) of the Church comes into
the lives of married Christians through the sacrament of matrimony. He abides
with them thereafter so that just as He loved the Church and handed Himself
over on her behalf,(6) the spouses may love each other with perpetual fidelity
through mutual self-bestowal.
Authentic married love is caught up
into divine love and is governed and enriched by Christ's redeeming power and
the saving activity of the Church, so that this love may lead the spouses to
God with powerful effect and may aid and strengthen them in sublime office of
being a father or a mother.(6) For this reason Christian spouses have a special
sacrament by which they are fortified and receive a kind of consecration in the
duties and dignity of their state.(7) By virtue of this sacrament, as spouses
fulfil their conjugal and family obligation, they are penetrated with the
spirit of Christ, which suffuses their whole lives with faith, hope and
charity. Thus they increasingly advance the perfection of their own
personalities, as well as their mutual sanctification, and hence contribute
jointly to the glory of God.
As a result, with their parents
leading the way by example and family Prayer, children and indeed everyone
gathered around the family hearth will find a readier path to human maturity,
salvation and holiness. Graced with the dignity and office of fatherhood and
motherhood, parents will energetically acquit themselves of a duty which
devolves primarily on them, namely education and especially religious
education.
As living members of the family,
children contribute in their own way to making their parents holy. For they
will respond to the kindness of their parents with sentiments of gratitude,
with love and trust. They will stand by them as children should when hardships
overtake their parents and old age brings its loneliness. Widowhood, accepted
bravely as a continuation of the marriage vocation, should be esteemed by
all.(8) Families too will share their spiritual riches generously with other
families. Thus the Christian family, which springs from marriage as a
reflection of the loving covenant uniting Christ with the Church,(9) and as a
participation in that covenant, will manifest to all men Christ's living
presence in the world, and the genuine nature of the Church. This the family will
do by the mutual love of the spouses, by their generous fruitfulness, their
solidarity and faithfulness, and by the loving way in which all members of the
family assist one another.
49. The biblical Word of God several
times urges the betrothed and the married to nourish and develop their wedlock
by pure conjugal love and undivided affection.(10) Many men of our own age also
highly regard true love between husband and wife as it manifests itself in a
variety of ways depending on the worthy customs of various peoples and times.
This love is an eminently human one
since it is directed from one person to another through an affection of the
will; it involves the good of the whole person, and therefore can enrich the
expressions of body and mind with a unique dignity, ennobling these expressions
as special ingredients and signs of the friendship distinctive of marriage.
This love God has judged worthy of special gifts, healing, perfecting and
exalting gifts of grace and of charity. Such love, merging the human with the
divine, leads the spouses to a free and mutual gift of themselves, a gift
providing itself by gentle affection and by deed, such love pervades the whole
of their lives:(11) indeed by its busy generosity it grows better and grows
greater. Therefore it far excels mere erotic inclination, which, selfishly
pursued, soon enough fades wretchedly away.
This love is uniquely expressed and
perfected through the appropriate enterprise of matrimony. The actions within
marriage by which the couple are united intimately and chastely are noble and
worthy ones. Expressed in a manner which is truly human, these actions promote
that mutual self-giving by which spouses enrich each other with a joyful and a
ready will. Sealed by mutual faithfulness and be allowed above all by Christs
sacrament, this love remains steadfastly true in body and in mind, in bright
days or dark. It will never be profaned by adultery or divorce. Firmly
established by the Lord, the unity of marriage will radiate from the equal
personal dignity of wife and husband, a dignity acknowledged by mutual and
total love. The constant fulfillment of the duties of this Christian vocation
demands notable virtue. For this reason, strengthened by grace for holiness of
life, the couple will painstakingly cultivate and pray for steadiness of love,
large heartedness and the spirit of sacrifice.
Authentic conjugal love will be more
highly prized, and wholesome public opinion created about it if Christian
couples give outstanding witness to faithfulness and harmony in their love, and
to their concern for educating their children also, if they do their part in
bringing about the needed cultural, psychological and social renewal on behalf
of marriage and the family. Especially in the heart of their own families, young
people should be aptly and seasonably instructed in the dignity, duty and work
of married love. Trained thus in the cultivation of chastity, they will be able
at a suitable age to enter a marriage of their own after an honorable
courtship.
50. Marriage and conjugal love are
by their nature ordained toward the begetting and educating of children.
Children are really the supreme gift of marriage and contribute very
substantially to the welfare of their parents. The God Himself Who said,
"it is not good for man to be alone" (Gen. 2:18) and "Who made
man from the beginning male and female" (Matt. 19:4), wishing to share
with man a certain special participation in His own creative work, blessed male
and female, saying: "Increase and multiply" (Gen. 1:28). Hence, while
not making the other purposes of matrimony of less account, the true practice
of conjugal love, and the whole meaning of the family life which results from
it, have this aim: that the couple be ready with stout hearts to cooperate with
the love of the Creator and the Savior. Who through them will enlarge and
enrich His own family day by day.
Parents should regard as their
proper mission the task of transmitting human life and educating those to whom
it has been transmitted. They should realize that they are thereby cooperators
with the love of God the Creator, and are, so to speak, the interpreters of
that love. Thus they will fulfil their task with human and Christian
responsibility, and, with docile reverence toward God, will make decisions by common
counsel and effort. Let them thoughtfully take into account both their own
welfare and that of their children, those already born and those which the
future may bring. For this accounting they need to reckon with both the
material and the spiritual conditions of the times as well as of their state in
life. Finally, they should consult the interests of the family group, of
temporal society, and of the Church herself. The parents themselves and no one
else should ultimately make this judgment in the sight of God. But in their
manner of acting, spouses should be aware that they cannot proceed arbitrarily,
but must always be governed according to a conscience dutifully conformed to
the divine law itself, and should be submissive toward the Church's teaching
office, which authentically interprets that law in the light of the Gospel.
That divine law reveals and protects the integral meaning of conjugal love, and
impels it toward a truly human fulfillment. Thus, trusting in divine Providence
and refining the spirit of sacrifice,(12) married Christians glorify the
Creator and strive toward fulfillment in Christ when with a generous human and
Christian sense of responsibility they acquit themselves of the duty to
procreate. Among the couples who fulfil their God-given task in this way, those
merit special mention who with a gallant heart and with wise and common
deliberation, undertake to bring up suitably even a relatively large
family.(13)
Marriage to be sure is not
instituted solely for procreation; rather, its very nature as an unbreakable
compact between persons, and the welfare of the children, both demand that the
mutual love of the spouses be embodied in a rightly ordered manner, that it
grow and ripen. Therefore, marriage persists as a whole manner and communion of
life, and maintains its value and indissolubility, even when despite the often
intense desire of the couple, offspring are lacking.
51. This council realizes that
certain modern conditions often keep couples from arranging their married lives
harmoniously, and that they find themselves in circumstances where at least
temporarily the size of their families should not be increased. As a result,
the faithful exercise of love and the full intimacy of their lives is hard to
maintain. But where the intimacy of married life is broken off, its
faithfulness can sometimes be imperiled and its quality of fruitfulness ruined,
for then the upbringing of the children and the courage to accept new ones are
both endangered.
To these problems there are those
who presume to offer dishonorable solutions indeed; they do not recoil even
from the taking of life. But the Church issues the reminder that a true
contradiction cannot exist between the divine laws pertaining to the
transmission of life and those pertaining to authentic conjugal love.
For God, the Lord of life, has
conferred on men the surpassing ministry of safeguarding life in a manner which
is worthy of man. Therefore from the moment of its conception life must be
guarded with the greatest care while abortion and infanticide are unspeakable
crimes. The sexual characteristics of man and the human faculty of reproduction
wonderfully exceed the dispositions of lower forms of life. Hence the acts
themselves which are proper to conjugal love and which are exercised in accord
with genuine human dignity must be honored with great reverence. Hence when
there is question of harmonizing conjugal love with the responsible
transmission of life, the moral aspects of any procedure does not depend solely
on sincere intentions or on an evaluation of motives, but must be determined by
objective standards. These, based on the nature of the human person and his
acts, preserve the full sense of mutual self-giving and human procreation in
the context of true love. Such a goal cannot be achieved unless the virtue of
conjugal chastity is sincerely practiced. Relying on these principles, sons of
the Church may not undertake methods of birth control which are found
blameworthy by the teaching authority of the Church in its unfolding of the
divine law.(14)
All should be persuaded that human
life and the task of transmitting it are not realities bound up with this world
alone. Hence they cannot be measured or perceived only in terms of it, but
always have a bearing on the eternal destiny of men.
52. The family is a kind of school
of deeper humanity. But if it is to achieve the full flowering of its life and
mission, it needs the kindly communion of minds and the joint deliberation of
spouses, as well as the painstaking cooperation of parents in the education of
their children. The active presence of the father is highly beneficial to their
formation. The children, especially the younger among them, need the care of
their mother at home. This domestic role of hers must be safely preserved, though
the legitimate social progress of women should not be underrated on that
account.
Children should be so educated that
as adults they can follow their vocation, including a religious one, with a
mature sense of responsibility and can choose their state of life; if they
marry, they can thereby establish their family in favorable moral, social and
economic conditions. Parents or guardians should by prudent advice provide
guidance to their young with respect to founding a family, and the young ought
to listen gladly. At the same time no pressure, direct or indirect, should be
put on the young to make them enter marriage or choose a specific partner.
Thus the family, in which the
various generations come together and help one another grow wiser and harmonize
personal rights with the other requirements of social life, is the foundation
of society. All those, therefore, who exercise influence over communities and
social groups should work efficiently for the welfare of marriage and the
family. Public authority should regard it as a sacred duty to recognize,
protect and promote their authentic nature, to shield public morality and to
favor the prosperity of home life. The right of parents to beget and educate
their children in the bosom of the family must be safeguarded. Children too who
unhappily lack the blessing of a family should be protected by prudent
legislation and various undertakings and assisted by the help they need.
Christians, redeeming the present
time(13) and distinguishing eternal realities from their changing expressions,
should actively promote the values of marriage and the family, both by the
examples of their own lives and by cooperation with other men of good will.
Thus when difficulties arise, Christians will provide, on behalf of family life,
those necessities and helps which are suitably modern. To this end, the
Christian instincts of the faithful, the upright moral consciences of men, and
the wisdom and experience of persons versed in the sacred sciences will have
much to contribute.
Those too who are skilled in other
sciences, notably the medical, biological, social and psychological, can
considerably advance the welfare of marriage and the family along with peace of
conscience if by pooling their efforts they labor to explain more thoroughly
the various conditions favoring a proper regulation of births.
It devolves on priests duly trained
about family matters to nurture the vocation of spouses by a variety of
pastoral means, by preaching God's word, by liturgical worship, and by other
spiritual aids to conjugal and family life; to sustain them sympathetically and
patiently in difficulties, and to make them courageous through love, so that
families which are truly illustrious can be formed.
Various organizations, especially
family associations, should try by their programs of instruction and action to
strengthen young people and spouses themselves, particularly those recently
wed, and to train them for family, social and apostolic life.
Finally, let the spouses themselves,
made to the image of the living God and enjoying the authentic dignity of
persons, be joined to one another(16) in equal affection, harmony of mind and
the work of mutual sanctification. Thus, following Christ who is the principle
of life,(17) by the sacrifices and joys of their vocation and through their
faithful love, married people can become witnesses of the mystery of love which
the Lord revealed to the world by His dying and His rising up to life
again.(18)
CHAPTER
II
THE
PROPER DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE
53. Man comes to a true and full
humanity only through culture, that is through the cultivation of the goods and
values of nature. Wherever human life is involved, therefore, nature and
culture are quite intimately connected one with the other.
The word "culture" in its
general sense indicates everything whereby man develops and perfects his many
bodily and spiritual qualities; he strives by his knowledge and his labor, to
bring the world itself under his control. He renders social life more human
both in the family and the civic community, through improvement of customs and
institutions. Throughout the course of time he expresses, communicates and
conserves in his works, great spiritual experiences and desires, that they
might be of advantage to the progress of many, even of the whole human family.
Thence it follows that human culture
has necessarily a historical and social aspect and the word "culture"
also often assumes a sociological and ethnological sense. According to this
sense we speak of a plurality of cultures. Different styles of life and
multiple scales of values arise from the diverse manner of using things, of
laboring, of expressing oneself, of practicing religion, of forming customs, of
establishing laws and juridic institutions of cultivating the sciences, the
arts and beauty. Thus the customs handed down to it form the patrimony proper
to each human community. It is also in this way that there is formed the
definite, historical milieu which enfolds the man oœ every nation and age and
from which he draws the values which permit him to promote civilization.
SECTION 1
The Circumstances of Culture in the World Today
The Circumstances of Culture in the World Today
54. The circumstances of the life of
modern man have been so profoundly changed in their social and cultural
aspects, that we can speak of a new age of human history.(1) New ways are open,
therefore, for the perfection and the further extension of culture. These ways
have been prepared by the enormous growth of natural, human and social
sciences, by technical progress, and advances in developing and organizing
means whereby men can communicate with one another. Hence the culture of today
possesses particular characteristics: sciences which are called exact greatly
develop critical judgment; the more recent psychological studies more
profoundly explain human activity; historical studies make it much easier to
see things in their mutable and evolutionary aspects, customs and usages are
becoming more and more uniform; industrialization, urbanization, and other
causes which promote community living create a mass-culture from which are born
new ways of thinking, acting and making use of leisure. The increase of
commerce between the various nations and human groups opens more widely to all
the treasures of different civilizations and thus little by little, there
develops a more universal form of human culture, which better promotes and
expresses the unity of the human race to the degree that it preserves the
particular aspects of the different civilizations.
55. From day to day, in every group
or nation, there is an increase in the number of men and women who are
conscious that they themselves are the authors and the artisans of the culture
of their community. Throughout the whole world there is a mounting increase in
the sense of autonomy as well as of responsibility. This is of paramount
importance for the spiritual and moral maturity of the human race. This becomes
more clear if we consider the unification of the world and the duty which is
imposed upon us, that we build a better world based upon truth and justice.
Thus we are witnesses of the birth of a new humanism, one in which man is
defined first of all by this responsibility to his brothers and to history.
56. In these conditions, it is no
cause of wonder that man, who senses his responsibility for the progress of
culture, nourishes a high hope but also looks with anxiety upon many
contradictory things which he must resolve:
What is to be done to prevent the
increased exchanges between cultures, which should lead to a true and fruitful
dialogue between groups and nations, from disturbing the life of communities,
from destroying the wisdom received from ancestors, or from placing in danger
the character proper to each people?
How is the dynamism and expansion of
a new culture to be fostered without losing a living fidelity to the heritage
of tradition. This question is of particular urgency when a culture which
arises from the enormous progress of science and technology must be harmonized
with a culture nourished by classical studies according to various traditions.
How can we quickly and progressively
harmonize the proliferation of particular branches of study with the necessity
of forming a synthesis of them, and of preserving among men the faculties of
contemplation and observation which lead to wisdom?
What can be done to make all men
partakers of cultural values in the world, when the human culture of those who
are more competent is constantly becoming more refined and more complex?
Finally how is the autonomy which
culture claims for itself to be recognized as legitimate without generating a
notion of humanism which is merely terrestrial, and even contrary to religion
itself.
In the midst of these conflicting
requirements, human culture must evolve today in such a way that it can both
develop the whole human person and aid man in those duties to whose fulfillment
all are called, especially Christians fraternally united in one human family.
SECTION 2
Some Principles for the Proper Development of Culture
Some Principles for the Proper Development of Culture
57. Christians, on pilgrimage toward
the heavenly city, should seek and think of these things which are above(2)
This duty in no way decreases, rather it increases, the importance of their
obligation to work with all men in the building of a more human world. Indeed,
the mystery of the Christian faith furnishes them with an excellent stimulant
and aid to fulfill this duty more courageously and especially to uncover the
full meaning of this activity, one which gives to human culture its eminent
place in the integral vocation of man.
When man develops the earth by the
work of his hands or with the aid of technology, in order that it might bear
fruit and become a dwelling worthy of the whole human family and when he
consciously takes part in the life of social groups, he carries out the design
of God manifested at the beginning of time, that he should subdue the earth,
perfect creation and develop himself. At the same time he obeys the commandment
of Christ that he place himself at the service of his brethren.
Furthermore, when man gives himself
to the various disciplines of philosophy, history and of mathematical and
natural science, and when he cultivates the arts, he can do very much to
elevate the human family to a more sublime understanding of truth, goodness,
and beauty, and to the formation of considered opinions which have universal
value. Thus mankind may be more clearly enlightened by that marvelous Wisdom
which was with God from all eternity, composing all things with him, rejoicing
in the earth, delighting in the sons of men.(4)
In this way, the human spirit, being
less subjected to material things, can be more easily drawn to the worship and
contemplation of the Creator. Moreover, by the impulse of grace, he is disposed
to acknowledge the Word of God, Who before He became flesh in order to save all
and to sum up all in Himself was already "in the world" as "the
true light which enlightens every man" (John 1:9-10).(5)
Indeed today's progress in science
and technology can foster a certain exclusive emphasis on observable data, and
an agnosticism about everything else. For the methods of investigation which
these sciences use can be wrongly considered as the supreme rule of seeking the
whole truth. By virtue of their methods these sciences cannot penetrate to the
intimate notion of things. Indeed the danger is present that man, confiding too
much in the discoveries of today, may think that he is sufficient unto himself
and no longer seek the higher things.
Those unfortunate results, however,
do not necessarily follow from the culture of today, nor should they lead us
into the temptation of not acknowledging its positive values. Among these
values are included: scientific study and fidelity toward truth in scientific
inquiries, the necessity of working together with others in technical groups, a
sense of international solidarity, a clearer awareness of the responsibility of
experts to aid and even to protect men, the desire to make the conditions of
life more favorable for all, especially for those who are poor in culture or
who are deprived of the opportunity to exercise responsibility. All of these
provide some preparation for the acceptance of the message of the Gospel a
preparation which can be animated by divine charity through Him Who has come to
save the world.
58. There are many ties between the
message of salvation and human culture. For God, revealing Himself to His
people to the extent of a full manifestation of Himself in His Incarnate Son,
has spoken according to the culture proper to each epoch.
Likewise the Church, living in
various circumstances in the course of time, has used the discoveries of
different cultures so that in her preaching she might spread and explain the
message of Christ to all nations, that she might examine it and more deeply
understand it, that she might give it better expression in liturgical
celebration and in the varied life of the community of the faithful.
But at the same time, the Church,
sent to all peoples of every time and place, is not bound exclusively and
indissolubly to any race or nation, any particular way of life or any customary
way of life recent or ancient. Faithful to her own tradition and at the same
time conscious of her universal mission, she can enter into communion with the
various civilizations, to their enrichment and the enrichment of the Church
herself.
The Gospel of Christ constantly
renews the life and culture of fallen man, it combats and removes the errors
and evils resulting from the permanent allurement of sin. It never eases to
purify and elevate the morality of peoples. By riches coming from above, it
makes fruitful, as it were from within, the spiritual qualities and traditions
of every people md of every age. It strengthens, perfects and restores(6) them
in Christ. Thus the Church, in the very fulfillment of her own function,(7)
stimulates and advances human and civic culture; by her action, also by her
liturgy, she leads them toward interior liberty.
59. For the above reasons, the
Church recalls to the mind of all that culture is to be subordinated to the
integral perfection of the human person, to the good of the community and of
the whole society. Therefore it is necessary to develop the human faculties in
such a way that there results a growth of the faculty of admiration, of
intuition, of contemplation, of making personal judgment, of developing a
religious, moral and social sense.
Culture, because it flows
immediately from the spiritual and social character of man, has constant need
of a just liberty in order to develop; it needs also the legitimate possibility
of exercising its autonomy according to its own principles. It therefore
rightly demands respect and enjoys a certain inviolability within the limits of
the common good, as long, of course, as it preserves the rights of the
individual and the community, whether particular or universal.
This Sacred Synod, therefore,
recalling the teaching of the first Vatican Council, declares that there are
"two orders of knowledge" which are distinct, namely faith and
reason; and that the Church does not forbid that "the human arts and disciplines
use their own principles and their proper method, each in its own domain";
therefore "acknowledging this just liberty," this Sacred Synod
affirms the legitimate autonomy of human culture and especially of the
sciences.(8)
All this supposes that, within the
limits of morality and the common utility, man can freely search for the truth,
express his opinion and publish it; that he can practice any art he chooses:
that finally, he can avail himself of true information concerning events of a
public nature.(9)
As for public authority, it is not
its function to determine the character of the civilization, but rather to
establish the conditions and to use the means which are capable of fostering
the life of culture among an even within the minorities of a nation.(10) It is
necessary to do everything possible to prevent culture from being turned away
from its proper end and made to serve as an instrument of political or economic
power.
SECTION 3
Some More Urgent Duties of Christians in Regard to Culture
Some More Urgent Duties of Christians in Regard to Culture
60. It is now possible to free most
of humanity from the misery of ignorance. Therefore the duty most consonant
with our times, especially for Christians, is that of working diligently for
fundamental decisions to be taken in economic and political affairs, both on
the national and international level which will everywhere recognize and
satisfy the right of all to a human and social culture in conformity with the
dignity of the human person without any discrimination of race, sex, nation,
religion or social condition. Therefore it is necessary to provide all with a
sufficient quantity of cultural benefits, especially of those which constitute
the so-called fundamental culture lest very many be prevented from cooperating
in the promotion of the common good in a truly human manner because of
illiteracy and a lack of responsible activity.
We must strive to provide for those
men who are gifted the possibility of pursuing higher studies; and in such a
way that, as far as possible, they may occupy in society those duties, offices
and services which are in harmony with their natural aptitude and the
competence they have acquired.(11) Thus each man and the social groups of every
people will be able to attain the full development of their culture in
conformity with their qualities and traditions.
Everything must be done to make
everyone conscious of the right to culture and the duty he has of developing
him self culturally and of helping others. Sometimes there exist conditions of
life and of work which impede the cultural striving of men and destroy in them
the eagerness for culture. This is especially true of farmers and workers. It
is necessary to provide for them those working conditions which will not impede
their human culture but rather favor it. Women now work in almost all spheres.
It is fitting that they are able to assume their proper role in accordance with
their own nature. It will belong to all to acknowledge and favor the proper and
necessary participation of women in the cultural life.
61. Today it is more difficult to form
a synthesis of the various disciplines of knowledge and the arts than it was
formerly. For while the mass and the diversity of cultural factors are
increasing, there is a decrease in each man's faculty of perceiving and
unifying these things, so that the image of "universal man" is being
lost sight of more and more. Nevertheless it remains each man's duty to retain
an understanding of the whole human person in which the values of intellect,
will, conscience and fraternity are preeminent. These values are all rooted in
God the Creator and have been wonderfully restored and elevated in Christ.
The family is, as it were, the
primary mother and nurse of this education. There, the children, in an
atmosphere of love, more easily learn the correct order of things, while proper
forms of human culture impress themselves in an almost unconscious manner upon
the mind of the developing adolescent.
Opportunities for the same education
are to be found also in the societies of today, due especially to the increased
circulation of books and to the new means of cultural and social communication
which can foster a universal culture. With the more or less generalized
reduction of working hours, the leisure time of most men has increased. May
this leisure be used properly to relax, to fortify the health of soul and body
through spontaneous study and activity, through tourism which refines man's
character and enriches him with understanding of others, through sports
activity which helps to preserve equilibrium of spirit even in the community,
and to establish fraternal relations among men of all conditions, nations and
races. Let Christians cooperate so that the cultural manifestations and
collective activity characteristic of our time may be imbued with a human and a
Christian spirit.
All these leisure activities however
are not able to bring man to a full cultural development unless there is at the
same time a profound inquiry into the meaning of culture and science for the
human person.
62. Although the Church has
contributed much to the development of culture, experience shows that, for
circumstantial reasons, it is sometimes difficult to harmonize culture with
Christian teaching. These difficulties do not necessarily harm the life of
faith, rather they can stimulate the mind to a deeper and more accurate
understanding of the faith. The recent studies and findings of science, history
and philosophy raise new questions which effect life and which demand new
theological investigations. Furthermore, theologians, within the requirements
and methods proper to theology, are invited to seek continually for more
suitable ways of communicating doctrine to the men of their times; for the
deposit of Faith or the truths are one thing and the manner in which they are
enunciated, in the same meaning and understanding, is another.(12) In pastoral
care, sufficient use must be made not only of theological principles, but also
of the findings of the secular sciences, especially of psychology and
sociology, so that the faithful may be brought to a more adequate and mature
life of faith.
Literature and the arts are also, in
their own way, of great importance to the life of the Church. They strive to
make known the proper nature of man, his problems and his experiences in trying
to know and perfect both himself and the world. They have much to do with
revealing mans place in history and in the world; with illustrating the
miseries and joys, the needs and strengths of man and with foreshadowing 1
better life for him. The they are able to elevate human life, expressed in
multifold forms according to various times and regions.
Efforts must be made so that those
who foster these arts feel that the Church recognizes their activity and so
that, enjoying orderly liberty, they may initiate more friendly relations with
the Christian community. The Church acknowledges also new forms of art which
are adapted to our age and are in keeping with the characteristics of various
nations and regions. They may be brought into the sanctuary since they raise
the mind to God, once the manner of expression is adapted and they are
conformed to liturgical requirements(13)
Thus the knowledge of God is better
manifested and the preaching of the Gospel becomes clearer to human
intelligence and shows itself to be relevant to man's actual conditions of
life.
May the faithful, therefore, live in
very close union with the other men of their time and may they strive to
understand perfectly their way of thinking and judging, as expressed in their
culture. Let them blend new sciences and theories and the understanding of the
most recent discoveries with Christian morality and the teaching of Christian
doctrine, so that their religious culture and morality may keep pace with
scientific knowledge and with the constantly progressing technology. Thus they
will be able to interpret and evaluate all things in a truly Christian spirit.
Let those who teach theology in
seminaries and universities strive to collaborate with men versed in the other
sciences through a sharing of their resources and points of view. Theological
inquiry should pursue a profound understanding of revealed truth; at the same
time it should not neglect close contact with its own time that it may be able
to help these men skilled in various disciplines to attain to a better understanding
of the faith. This common effort will greatly aid the formation of priests, who
will be able to present to our contemporaries the doctrine of the Church
concerning God, man and the world, in a manner more adapted to them so that
they may receive it more willingly.(14) Furthermore, it is to be hoped that
many of the laity will receive a sufficient formation in the sacred sciences
and that some will dedicate themselves professionally to these studies,
developing and deepening them by their own labors. In order that they may
fulfill their function, let it be recognized that all the faithful, whether
clerics or laity, possess a lawful freedom of inquiry, freedom of thought and
of expressing their mind with humility and fortitude in those matters on which
they enjoy competence.(16)
CHAPTER
III
ECONOMIC
AND SOCIAL LIFE
63. In the economic and social
realms, too, the dignity and complete vocation of the human person and the
welfare of society as a whole are to be respected and promoted. For man is the
source, the center, and the purpose of all economic and social life.
Like other areas of social life, the
economy of today is marked by man's increasing domination over nature, by
closer and more intense relationships between citizens, groups, and countries and
their mutual dependence, and by the increased intervention of the state. At the
same time progress in the methods of production and in the exchange of goods
and services has made the economy an instrument capable of better meeting the
intensified needs of the human family.
Reasons for anxiety, however, are
not lacking. Many people, especially in economically advanced areas, seem, as
it were, to be ruled by economics, so that almost their entire personal and
social life is pennated with a certain economic way of thinking. Such is true
both of nations that favor a collective economy and of others. At the very time
when the development of economic life could mitigate social inequalities
(provided that it be guided and coordinated in a reasonable and human way), it
is often made to embitter them; or, in some places, it even results in a
decline of the social status of the underprivileged and in contempt for the
poor. While an immense number of people still lack the absolute necessities of
life, some, even in less advanced areas, live in luxury or squander wealth.
Extravagance and wretchedness exist side by side. While a few enjoy very great
power of choice, the majority are deprived of almost all possibility of acting
on their own initiative and responsibility, and often subsist in living and
working conditions unworthy of the human person.
A similar lack of economic and
social balance is to be noticed between agriculture, industry, and the
services, and also between different parts of one and the same country. The
contrast between the economically more advanced countries and other countries
is becoming more serious day by day, and the very peace of the world can be
jeopardized thereby.
Our contemporaries are coming to
feel these inequalities with an ever sharper awareness, since they are
thoroughly convinced that the ampler technical and economic possibilities which
the world of today enjoys can and should correct this unhappy state of affairs.
Hence, many reforms in the socioeconomic realm and a change of mentality and
attitude are required of all. For this reason the Church down through the
centuries and in the light of the Gospel has worked out the principles of
justice and equity demanded by right reason both for individual and social life
and for international life, and she has proclaimed them especially in recent
times. This sacred council intends to strengthen these principles according to
the circumstances of this age and to set forth certain guidelines, especially
with regard to the requirements of economic development.(1)
SECTION 1
Economic Development
Economic Development
64. Today more than ever before
attention is rightly given to the increase of the production of agricultural
and industrial goods and of the rendering of services, for the purpose of
making provision for the growth of population and of satisfying the increasing
desires of the human race. Therefore, technical progress, an inventive spirit,
an eagerness to create and to expand enterprises, the application of methods of
production, and the strenuous efforts of all who engage in production-in a
word, all the elements making for such development-must be promoted. The
fundamental finality of this production is not the mere increase of products
nor profit or control but rather the service of man, and indeed of the whole
man with regard for the full range of his material needs and the demands of his
intellectual, moral, spiritual, and religious life; this applies to every man
whatsoever and to every group of men, of every race and of every part of the
world. Consequently, economic activity is to be carried on according to its own
methods and laws within the limits of the moral order," so that God's plan
for mankind may be realized.(3)
65. Economic development must remain
under man's determination and must not be left to the judgment of a few men or
groups possessing too much economic power or of the political community alone
or of certain more powerful nations. It is necessary, on the contrary, that at
every level the largest possible number of people and, when it is a question of
international relations, all nations have an active share in directing that
development. There is need as well of the coordination and fitting and
harmonious combination of the spontaneous efforts of individuals and of free
groups with the undertakings oœ public authorities.
Growth is not to be left solely to a
kind of mechanical course of the economic activity of individuals, nor to the
authority of government. For this reason, doctrines which obstruct the
necessary reforms under the guise of a false liberty, and those which
subordinate the basic rights of individual persons and groups to the collective
organization of production must be shown to be erroneous.(4)
Citizens, on the other hand, should
remember that it is their right and duty, which is also to be recognized by the
civil authority, to contribute to the true progress of their own community
according to their ability. Especially in underdeveloped areas, where all
resources must urgently be employed, those who hold back their unproductive
resources or who deprive their community of the material or spiritual aid that
it needs-saving the personal right of migration-gravely endanger the common
good.
66. To satisfy the demands of
justice and equity, strenuous efforts must be made, without disregarding the
rights of persons or the natural qualities of each country, to remove as
quickly as possible the immense economic inequalities, which now exist and in
many cases are growing and which are connected with individual and social
discrimination. Likewise, in many areas, in view of the special difficulties of
agriculture relative to the raising and selling of produce, country people must
be helped both to increase and to market what they produce, and to introduce
the necessary development and renewal and also obtain a fair income. Otherwise,
as too often happens, they will remain in the condition of lower-class
citizens. Let farmers themselves, especially young ones, apply themselves to
perfecting their professional skill, for without it, there can be no
agricultural advance.(5)
Justice and equity likewise require
that the mobility, which is necessary in a developing economy, be regulated in
such a way as to keep the life of individuals and their families from becoming
insecure and precarious. When workers come from another country or district and
contribute to the economic advancement of a nation or region by their labor,
all discrimination as regards wages and working conditions must be carefully
avoided. All the people, moreover, above all the public authorities, must treat
them not as mere tools of production but as persons, and must help them to
bring their families to live with them and to provide themselves with a decent
dwelling; they must also see to it that these workers are incorporated into the
social life of the country or region that receives them. Employment
opportunities, however, should be created in their own areas as far as
possible.
In economic affairs which today are
subject to change, as in the new forms of industrial society in which
automation, for example, is advancing, care must be taken that sufficient and
suitable work and the possibility of the appropriate technical and professional
formation are furnished. The livelihood and the human dignity especially of
those who are in very difficult conditions because of illness or old age must
be guaranteed.
SECTION 2
Certain Principles Governing Socio-Economic Life as a Whole
Certain Principles Governing Socio-Economic Life as a Whole
67. Human labor which is expended in
the production and exchange of goods or in the performance of economic services
is superior to the other elements of economic life, for the latter have only
the nature of tools.
This labor, whether it is engaged in
independently or hired by someone else, comes immediately from the person, who
as it were stamps the things of nature with his seal and subdues them to his
will. By his labor a man ordinarily supports himself and his family, is joined
to his fellow men and serves them, and can exercise genuine charity and be a
partner in the work of bringing divine creation to perfection. Indeed, we hold
that through labor offered to God man is associated with the redemptive work of
Jesus Christ, Who conferred an eminent dignity on labor when at Nazareth He
worked with His own hands. From this there follows for every man the duty of
working faithfully and also the right to work. It is the duty of society,
moreover, according to the circumstances prevailing in it, and in keeping with
its role, to help the citizens to find sufficient employment. Finally,
remuneration for labor is to be such that man may be furnished the means to
cultivate worthily his own material, social, cultural, and spiritual life and
that of his dependents, in view of the function and productiveness of each one,
the conditions of the factory or workshop, and the common good.(6)
Since economic activity for the most
part implies the associated work of human beings, any way of organizing and
directing it which may be detrimental to any working men and women would be
wrong and inhuman. It happens too often, however, even in our days, that
workers are reduced to the level of being slaves to their own work. This is by
no means justified by the so-called economic laws. The entire process of
productive work, therefore, must be adapted to the needs of the person and to
his way of life, above all to his domestic life, especially in respect to
mothers of families, always with due regard for sex and age. The opportunity,
moreover, should be granted to workers to unfold their own abilities and
personality through the performance of their work. Applying their time and
strength to their employment with a due sense of responsibility, they should
also all enjoy sufficient rest and leisure to cultivate their familial,
cultural, social and religious life. They should also have the opportunity
freely to develop the energies and potentialities which perhaps they cannot
bring to much fruition in their professional work.
68. In economic enterprises it is
persons who are joined together, that is, free and independent human beings
created lo the image of God. Therefore, with attention to the functions of
each-owners or employers, management or labor-and without doing harm to the
necessary unity of management, the active sharing of all in the administration
and profits of these enterprises in ways to be properly determined is to be
promoted.(7) Since more often, however, decisions concerning economic and
social conditions, on which the future lot of the workers and of their children
depends, are made not within the business itself but by institutions on a
higher level, the workers themselves should have a share also in determining
these conditions-in person or through freely elected delegates.
Among the basic rights of the human
person is to be numbered the right of freely founding unions for working
people. These should be able truly to represent them and to contribute to the
organizing of economic life in the right way. Included is the right of freely
taking part in the activity of these unions without risk of reprisal. Through
this orderly participation joined to progressive economic and social formation,
all will grow day by day in the awareness of their own function and
responsibility, and thus they will be brought to feel that they are comrades in
the whole task of economic development and in the attainment of the universal
common good according to their capacities and aptitudes.
When, however, socio-economic
disputes arise, efforts must be made to come to a peaceful settlement. Although
recourse must always be had first to a sincere dialogue between the parties, a
strike, nevertheless, can remain even in presentday circumstances a necessary,
though ultimate, aid for the defense of the workers' own rights and the
fulfillment of their just desires. As soon as possible, however, ways should be
sought to resume negotiation and the discussion of reconciliation.
69. God intended the earth with
everything contained in it for the use of all human beings and peoples. Thus,
under the leadership of justice and in the company of charity, created goods
should be in abundance for all in like manner.(8) Whatever the forms of
property may be, as adapted to the legitimate institutions of peoples,
according to diverse and changeable circumstances, attention must always be
paid to this universal destination of earthly goods. In using them, therefore,
man should regard the external things that he legitimately possesses not only
as his own but also as common in the sense that they should be able to benefit
not only him but also others.(9) On the other hand, the right of having a share
of earthly goods sufficient for oneself and one's family belongs to everyone.
The Fathers and Doctors of the Church held this opinion, teaching that men are
obliged to come to the relief of the poor and to do so not merely out of their superfluous
goods.(10) If one is in extreme necessity, he has the right to procure for
himself what he needs out of the riches of others.(11) Since there are so many
people prostrate with hunger in the world, this sacred council urges all, both
individuals and governments, to remember the aphorism of the Fathers,
"Feed the man dying of hunger, because if you have not fed him, you have
killed him,"(12) and really to share and employ their earthly goods,
according to the ability of each, especially by supporting individuals or
peoples with the aid by which they may be able to help and develop themselves.
In economically less advanced
societies the common destination of earthly goods is partly satisfied by means
of the customs and traditions proper to the community, by which the absolutely
necessary things are furnished to each member. An effort must be made, however,
to avoid regarding certain customs as altogether unchangeable, if they no
longer answer the new needs of this age. On the other hand, imprudent action
should not be taken against respectable customs which, provided they are
suitably adapted to present-day circumstances, do not cease to be very useful.
Similarly, in highly developed nations a body of social institutions dealing
with protection and security can, for its own part, bring to reality the common
destination of earthly goods. Family and social services, especially those that
provide for culture and education, should be further promoted. When all these
things are being organized, vigilance is necessary to present the citizens from
being led into a certain inactivity vis-a-vis society or from rejecting the
burden of taking up office or from refusing to serve.
70. Investments, for their part,
must be directed toward procuring employment and sufficient income for the
people both now and in the future. Whoever makes decisions concerning these
investments and the planning of the economy-whether they be individuals or
groups of public authorities-are bound to keep these objectives in mind and to
recognize their serious obligation of watching, on the one hand, that provision
be made for the necessities required for a decent life both of individuals and
of the whole community and, on the other, of looking out for the future and of
establishing a right balance between the needs of present-day consumption, both
individual and collective, and the demands of investing for the generation to
come. They should also always bear in mind the urgent needs of underdeveloped
countries or regions. In monetary matters they should beware of hurting the
welfare of their own country or of other countries. Care should also be taken
lest the economically weak countries unjustly suffer any loss from a change in
the value of money.
71. Since property and other forms
of private ownership of external goods contribute to the expression of the
personality, and since, moreover, they furnish one an occasion to exercise his
function in society and in the economy, it is very important that the access of
both individuals and communities to some ownership of external goods be
fostered
Private property or some ownership
of external goods confers on everyone a sphere wholly necessary for the
autonomy of the person and the family, and it should be regarded as an
extension of human freedom. Lastly, since it adds incentives for carrying on
one's function and charge, it constitutes one of the conditions for civil
liberties.(13)
The forms of such ownership or
property are varied today and are becoming increasingly diversified. They all
remain, however, a cause of security not to be underestimated, in spite of
social funds, rights, and services provided by society. This is true not only
of material property but also of immaterial things such as professional
capacities.
The right of private ownership,
however, is not opposed to the right inherent in various forms of public
property. Goods can be transferred to the public domain only by the competent
authority, according to the demands and within the limits of the common good,
and with fair compensation. Furthermore, it is the right of public authority to
prevent anyone from abusing his private property to the detriment of the common
good.(14)
By its very nature private property
has a social quality which is based on the law of the common destination of earthly
goods.(15) If this social quality is overlooked, property often becomes an
occasion of passionate desires for wealth and serious disturbances, so that a
pretext is given to the attackers for calling the right itself into question.
In many underdeveloped regions there
are large or even extensive rural estates which are only slightly cultivated or
lie completely idle for the sake of profit, while the majority of the people
either are without land or have only very small fields, and, on the other hand,
it is evidently urgent to increase the productivity of the fields. Not
infrequently those who are hired to work for the landowners or who till a
portion of the land as tenants receive a wage or income unworthy of a human
being, lack decent housing and are exploited by middlemen. Deprived of all
security, they live under such personal servitude that almost every opportunity
of acting on their own initiative and responsibility is denied to them and all
advancement in human culture and all sharing in social and political life is
forbidden to them. According to the different cases, therefore, reforms are
necessary: that income may grow, working conditions should be improved,
security in employment increased, and an incentive to working on one's own
initiative given. Indeed, insufficiently cultivated estates should be
distributed to those who can make these lands fruitful; in this case, the
necessary things and means, especially educational aids and the right
facilities for cooperative organization, must be supplied. Whenever,
nevertheless, the common good requires expropriation, compensation must be
reckoned in equity after all the circumstances have been weighed.
72. Christians who take an active
part in present-day socio-economic development and fight for justice and
charity should be convinced that they can make a great contribution to the
prosperity of mankind and to the peace of the world. In these activities let
them, either as individuals or as members of groups, give a shining example.
Having acquired the absolutely necessary skill and experience, they should
observe the right order in their earthly activities in faithfulness to Christ
and His Gospel. Thus their whole life, both individual and social, will be
permeated with the spirit of the beatitudes, notably with a spirit of poverty.
Whoever in obedience to Christ seeks
first the Kingdom of God, takes therefrom a stronger and purer love for helping
all his brethren and for perfecting the work of justice under the inspiration
of charity.(16)
CHAPTER
IV
THE
LIFE OF THE POLITICAL COMMUNITY
73. In our day, profound changes are
apparent also in the structure and institutions of peoples. These result from
their cultural, economic and social evolution. Such changes have a great
influence on the life of the political community, especially regarding the
rights and duties of all in the exercise of civil freedom and in the attainment
of the common good, and in organizing the relations of citizens among
themselves and with respect to public authority.
The present keener sense of human
dignity has given rise in many parts of the world to attempts to bring about a
politico-juridical order which will give better protection to the rights of the
person in public life. These include the right freely to meet and form associations,
the right to express one's own opinion and to profess one's religion both
publicly and privately. The protection of the rights of a person is indeed a
necessary condition so that citizens, individually or collectively, can take an
active part in the life and government of the state.
Along with cultural, economic and
social development, there is a growing desire among many people to play a
greater part in organizing the life of the political community. In the
conscience of many arises an increasing concern that the rights of minorities
be recognized, without any neglect for their duties toward the political
community. In addition, there is a steadily growing respect for men of other
opinions or other religions. At the same time, there is wider cooperation to
guarantee the actual exercise of personal rights to all citizens, and not only
to a few privileged individuals.
However, those political systems,
prevailing in some parts of the world are to be reproved which hamper civic or
religious freedom, victimize large numbers through avarice and political
crimes, and divert the exercise of authority from the service of the common
good to the interests of one or another faction or of the rulers themselves.
There is no better way to establish
political life on a truly human basis than by fostering an inward sense of
justice and kindliness, and of service to the common good, and by strengthening
basic convictions as to the true nature of the political community and the aim,
right exercise, and sphere of action of public authority.
74. Men, families and the various
groups which make up the civil community are aware that they cannot achieve a
truly human life by their own unaided efforts. They see the need for a wider
community, within which each one makes his specific contribution every day
toward an ever broader realization of the common good.(1) For this purpose they
set up a political community according to various forms. The political
community exists, consequently, for the sake of the common good, in which it finds
its full justification and significance, and the source of its inherent
legitimacy. Indeed, the common good embraces the sum of those conditions of the
social life whereby men, families and associations more adequately and readily
may attain their own perfection.(2)
Yet the people who come together in
the political community are many and diverse, and they have every right to
prefer divergent solutions. If the political community is not to be torn apart
while everyone follows his own opinion, there must be an authority to direct
the energies of all citizens toward the common good, not in a mechanical or
despotic fashion, but by acting above all as a moral force which appeals to
each one's freedom and sense of responsibility.
It is clear, therefore, that the
political community and public authority are founded on human nature and hence
belong to the order designed by God, even though the choice of a political
regime and the appointment of rulers are left to the free will of citizens.(3)
It follows also that political
authority, both in the community as such and in the representative bodies of
the state, must always be exercised within the limits of the moral order and
directed toward the common good-with a dynamic concept of that good-according
to the juridical order legitimately established or due to be established. When
authority is so exercised, citizens are bound in conscience to obey.(4)
Accordingly, the responsibility, dignity and importance of leaders are indeed
clear.
But where citizens are oppressed by
a public authority overstepping its competence, they should not protest against
those things which are objectively required for the common good; but it is
legitimate for them to defend their own rights and the rights of their fellow
citizens against the abuse of this authority, while keeping within those limits
drawn by the natural law and the Gospels.
According to the character of
different peoples and their historic development, the political community can,
however, adopt a variety of concrete solutions in its structures and the
organization of public authority. For the benefit of the whole human family,
these solutions must always contribute to the formation of a type of man who
will be cultivated, peace-loving and well-disposed towards all his fellow men.
75. It is in full conformity with
human nature that there should be juridico-political structures providing all
citizens in an ever better fashion and without and discrimination the practical
possibility of freely and actively taking part in the establishment of the
juridical foundations of the political community and in the direction of public
affairs, in fixing the terms of reference of the various public bodies and in
the election of political leaders.(5) All citizens, therefore, should be mindful
of the right and also the duty to use their free vote to further the common
good. The Church praises and esteems the work of those who for the good of men
devote themselves to the service of the state and take on the burdens of this
office.
If the citizens' responsible
cooperation is to produce the good results which may be expected in the normal
course of political life, there must be a statute of positive law providing for
a suitable division of the functions and bodies of authority and an efficient
and independent system for the protection of rights. The rights of all persons,
families and groups, and their practical application, must be recognized,
respected and furthered, together with the duties binding on all citizen.(6)
Among the latter, it will be well to recall the duty of rendering the political
community such material and personal service as are required by the common
good. Rulers must be careful not to hamper the development of family, social or
cultural groups, nor that of intermediate bodies or organizations, and not to
deprive them of opportunities for legitimate and constructive activity; they
should willingly seek rather to promote the orderly pursuit of such activity.
Citizens, for their part, either individually or collectively, must be careful
not to attribute excessive power to public authority, not to make exaggerated
and untimely demands upon it in their own interests, lessening in this way the
responsible role of persons, families and social groups.
The complex circumstances of our day
make it necessary for public authority to intervene more often in social,
economic and cultural matters in order to bring about favorable conditions
which will give more effective help to citizens and groups in their free
pursuit of man's total well-being. The relations, however, between
socialization and the autonomy and development of the person can be understood
in different ways according to various regions and the evolution of peoples.
But when the exercise of rights is restricted temporarily for the common good,
freedom should be restored immediately upon change of circumstances. Moreover,
it is inhuman for public authority to fall back on dictatonal systems or
totalitarian methods which violate the rights of the person or social groups.
Citizens must cultivate a generous
and loyal spirit of patriotism, but without being narrow-minded. This means
that they will always direct their attention to the good of the whole human
family, united by the different ties which bind together races, people and
nations.
All Christians must be aware of
their own specific vocation within the political community. It is for them to
give an example by their sense of responsibility and their service of the
common good. In this way they are to demonstrate concretely how authority can
be compatible with freedom, personal initiative with the solidarity of the
whole social organism, and the advantages of unity with fruitful diversity.
They must recognize the legitimacy of different opinions with regard to
temporal solutions, and respect citizens, who, even as a group, defend their
points of view by honest methods. Political parties, for their part, must
promote those things which in their judgement are required for the common good;
it is never allowable to give their interests priority over the common good.
Great care must be taken about civic
and political formation, which is of the utmost necessity today for the
population as a whole, and especially for youth, so that all citizens can play
their part in the life of the political community. Those who are suited or can
become suited should prepare themselves for the difficult, but at the same
time, the very noble art of politics,(8) and should seek to practice this art
without regard for their own interests or for material advantages. With
integrity and wisdom, they must take action against any form of injustice and
tyranny, against arbitrary domination by an individual or a political party and
any intolerance. They should dedicate themselves to the service of all with
sincerity and fairness, indeed, with the charity and fortitude demanded by
political life.
76. It is very important, especially
where a pluralistic society prevails, that there be a correct notion of the
relationship between the political community and the Church, and a clear
distinction between the tasks which Christians undertake, individually or as a
group, on their own responsibility as citizens guided by the dictates of a
Christian conscience, and the activities which, in union with their pastors,
they carry out in the name of the Church.
The Church, by reason of her role
and competence, is not identified in any way with the political community nor
bound to any political system. She is at once a sign and a safeguard of the
transcendent character of the human person.
The Church and the political
community in their own fields are autonomous and independent from each other.
Yet both, under different titles, are devoted to the personal and social
vocation of the same men. The more that both foster sounder cooperation between
themselves with due consideration for the circumstances of time and place, the
more effective will their service be exercised for the good of all. For man's
horizons are not limited only to the temporal order; while living in the
context of human history, he preserves intact his eternal vocation. The Church,
for her part, founded on the love of the Redeemer, contributes toward the reign
of justice and charity within the borders of a nation and between nations. By
preaching the truths of the Gospel, and bringing to bear on all fields of human
endeavor the light of her doctrine and of a Christian witness, she respects and
fosters the political freedom and responsibility of citizens.
The Apostles, their successors and
those who cooperate with them, are sent to announce to mankind Christ, the
Savior. Their apostolate is based on the power of God, Who very often shows
forth the strength of the Gospel on the weakness of its witnesses. All those
dedicated to the ministry of God's Word must use the ways and means proper to
the Gospel which in a great many respects differ from the means proper to the
earthly city.
There are, indeed, close links
between earthly things and those elements of man's condition which transcend
the world. The Church herself makes use of temporal things insofar as her own
mission requires it. She, for her part, does not place her trust in the
privileges offered by civil authority. She will even give up the exercise of
certain rights which have been legitimately acquired, if it becomes clear that
their use will cast doubt on the sincerity of her witness or that new ways of
life demand new methods. It is only right, however, that at all times and in
all places, the Church should have true freedom to preach the faith, to teach
her social doctrine, to exercise her role freely among men, and also to pass
moral judgment in those matters which regard public order when the fundamental
rights of a person or the salvation of souls require it. In this, she should
make use of all the means-but only those-which accord with the Gospel and which
correspond to the general good according to the diversity oœ times and
circumstances.
While faithfully adhering to the
Gospel and fulfilling her mission to the world, the Church, whose duty it is to
foster and elevate(9) all that is found to be true, good and beautiful in the
human community, strengthens peace among men for the glory of God.(10)
CHAPTER
V
THE
FOSTERING OF PEACE AND THE PROMOTION OF A COMMUNITY OF NATIONS
77. In our generation when men
continue to be afflicted by acute hardships and anxieties arising from the
ravages of war or the threat of it, the whole human family faces an hour of
supreme crisis in its advance toward maturity. Moving gradually together and
everywhere more conscious already of its unity, this family cannot accomplish
its task of constructing for all men everywhere a world more genuinely human
unless each person devotes himself to the cause of peace with renewed vigor.
Thus it happens that the Gospel message, which is in harmony with the loftier
strivings and aspirations of the human race, takes on a new luster in our day
as it declares that the artisans of peace are blessed "because they will
be called the sons of God" (Matt. 5:9).
Consequently, as it points out the
authentic and noble meaning of peace and condemns the frightfulness of war, the
Council wishes passionately to summon Christians to cooperate, under the help
of Christ the author of peace, with all men in securing among themselves a
peace based on justice and love and in setting up the instruments of peace.
78. Peace is not merely the absence
of war; nor can it be reduced solely to the maintenance of a balance of power
between enemies; nor is it brought about by dictatorship Instead, it is rightly
and appropriately called an enterprise of justice. Peace results from that
order structured into human society by its divine Founder, and actualized by
men as they thirst after ever greater justice. The common good of humanity
finds its ultimate meaning in the eternal law. But since the concrete demands
of this common good are constantly changing as time goes on, peace is never
attained once and for all, but must be built up ceaselessly. Moreover, since
the human will is unsteady and wounded by sin, the achievement of peace
requires a constant mastering of passions and the vigilance of lawful
authority.
But this is not enough. This peace
on earth cannot be obtained unless personal well-being is safeguarded and men
freely and trustingly share with one another the riches of their inner spirits
and their talents. A firm determination to respect other men and peoples and
their dignity, as well as the studied practice of brotherhood are absolutely
necessary for the establishment of peace. Hence peace is likewise the fruit of
love, which goes beyond what justice can provide.
That earthly peace which arises from
love of neighbor symbolizes and results from the peace of Christ which radiates
from God the Father. For by the cross the incarnate Son, the prince of peace
reconciled all men with God. By thus restoring all men to the unity of one
people and one body, He slew hatred in His own flesh; and, after being lifted
on high by His resurrection, He poured forth the spirit of love into the hearts
of men.
For this reason, all Christians are
urgently summoned to do in love what the truth requires, and to join with all
true peacemakers in pleading for peace and bringing it about.
Motivated by this same spirit, we
cannot fail to praise those who renounce the use of violence in the vindication
of their rights and who resort to methods of defense which are otherwise
available to weaker parties too, provided this can be done without injury to
the rights and duties of others or of the community itself.
Insofar as men are sinful, the
threat of war hangs over them, and hang over them it will until the return of
Christ. But insofar as men vanquish sin by a union of love, they will vanquish
violence as well and make these words come true: "They shall turn their
swords into plough-shares, and their spears into sickles. Nation shall not lift
up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more" (Isaias
2:4).
SECTION 1
The Avoidance of War
The Avoidance of War
79. Even though recent wars have
wrought physical and moral havoc on our world, the devastation of battle still
goes on day by day in some part of the world. Indeed, now that every kind of
weapon produced by modern science is used in war, the fierce character of
warfare threatens to lead the combatants to a savagery far surpassing that of
the past. Furthermore, the complexity of the modern world and the intricacy of
international relations allow guerrilla warfare to be drawn out by new methods
of deceit and subversion. In many causes the use of terrorism is regarded as a
new way to wage war.
Contemplating this melancholy state
of humanity, the council wishes, above all things else, to recall the permanent
binding force of universal natural law and its all-embracing principles. Man's
conscience itself gives ever more emphatic voice to these principles.
Therefore, actions which deliberately conflict with these same principles, as
well as orders commanding such actions are criminal, and blind obedience cannot
excuse those who yield to them. The most infamous among these are actions
designed for the methodical extermination of an entire people, nation or ethnic
minority. Such actions must be vehemently condemned as horrendous crimes. The
courage of those who fearlessly and openly resist those who issue such commands
merits supreme commendation.
On the subject of war, quite a large
number of nations have subscribed to international agreements aimed at making
military activity and its consequences less inhuman. Their stipulations deal
with such matters as the treatment of wounded soldiers and prisoners.
Agreements of this sort must be honored. Indeed they should be improved upon so
that the frightfulness of war can be better and more workably held in check.
All men, especially government officials and experts in these matters, are
bound to do everything they can to effect these improvements. Moreover, it
seems right that laws make humane provisions for the case of those who for
reasons of conscience refuse to bear arms, provided however, that they agree to
serve the human community in some other way.
Certainly, war has not been rooted
out of human affairs. As long as the danger of war remains and there is no
competent and sufficiently powerful authority at the international level,
governments cannot be denied the right to legitimate defense once every means
of peaceful settlement has been exhausted. State authorities and others who
share public responsibility have the duty to conduct such grave matters soberly
and to protect the welfare of the people entrusted to their care. But it is one
thing to undertake military action for the just defense of the people, and
something else again to seek the subjugation of other nations. Nor, by the same
token, does the mere fact that war has unhappily begun mean that all is fair
between the warring parties.
Those too who devote themselves to
the military service of their country should regard themselves as the agents of
security and freedom of peoples. As long as they fulfill this role properly,
they are making a genuine contribution to the establishment of peace.
80. The horror and perversity of war
is immensely magnified by the addition of scientific weapons. For acts of war
involving these weapons can inflict massive and indiscriminate destruction,
thus going far beyond the bounds of legitimate defense. Indeed, if the kind of
instruments which can now be found in the armories of the great nations were to
be employed to their fullest, an almost total and altogether reciprocal
slaughter of each side by the other would follow, not to mention the widespread
deviation that would take place in the world and the deadly after effects that
would be spawned by the use of weapons of this kind.
All these considerations compel us
to undertake an evaluation of war with an entirely new attitude.(1) The men of
our time must realize that they will have to give a somber reckoning of their
deeds of war for the course of the future will depend greatly on the decisions
they make today.
With these truths in mind, this most
holy synod makes its own the condemnations of total war already pronounced by
recent popes,(2) and issues the following declaration.
Any act of war aimed
indiscriminately at the destruction of entire cities of extensive areas along
with their population is a crime against God and man himself. It merits
unequivocal and unhesitating condemnation.
The unique hazard of modern warfare
consists in this: it provides those who possess modem scientific weapons with a
kind of occasion for perpetrating just such abominations; moreover, through a
certain inexorable chain of events, it can catapult men into the most atrocious
decisions. That such may never truly happen in the future, the bishops of the
whole world gathered together, beg all men, especially government officials and
military leaders, to give unremitting thought to their gigantic responsibility
before God and the entire human race.
81. To be sure, scientific weapons
are not amassed solely for use in war. Since the defensive strength of any
nation is considered to be dependent upon its capacity for immediate
retaliation, this accumulation of arms, which increases each year, likewise
serves, in a way heretofore unknown, as deterrent to possible enemy attack.
Many regard this procedure as the most effective way by which peace of a sort
can be maintained between nations at the present time.
Whatever be the facts about this
method of deterrence, men should be convinced that the arms race in which an
already considerable number of countries are engaged is not a safe way to
preserve a steady peace, nor is the so-called balance resulting from this race
a sure and authentic peace. Rather than being eliminated thereby, the causes of
war are in danger of being gradually aggravated. While extravagant sums are
being spent for the furnishing of ever new weapons, an adequate remedy cannot
be provided for the multiple miseries afflicting the whole modern world.
Disagreements between nations are not really and radically healed; on the
contrary, they spread the infection to other parts of the earth. New approaches
based on reformed attitudes must be taken to remove this trap and to emancipate
the world from its crushing anxiety through the restoration of genuine peace.
Therefore, we say it again: the arms
race is an utterly treacherous trap for humanity, and one which ensnares the
poor to an intolerable degree. It is much to be feared that if this race
persists, it will eventually spawn all the lethal ruin whose path it is now
making ready. Warned by the calamities which the human race has made possible,
let us make use of the interlude granted us from above and for which we are
thankful to become more conscious of our own responsibility and to find means
for resolving our disputes in a manner more worthy of man. Divine Providence
urgently demands of us that we free ourselves from the age-old slavery of war.
If we refuse to make this effort, we do not know where we will be led by the
evil road we have set upon.
It is our clear duty, therefore, to
strain every muscle in working for the time when all war can be completely
outlawed by international consent. This goal undoubtedly requires the
establishment of some universal public authority acknowledged as such by all
and endowed with the power to safeguard on the behalf of all, security, regard
for justice, and respect for rights. But before this hoped for authority can be
set up, the highest existing international centers must devote themselves
vigorously to the pursuit of better means for obtaining common security. Since
peace must be born of mutual trust between nations and not be imposed on them
through a fear of the available weapons, everyone must labor to put an end at
last to the arms race, and to make a true beginning of disarmament, not
unilaterally indeed, but proceeding at an equal pace according to agreement,
and backed up by true and workable safeguards.(3)
82. In the meantime, efforts which
have already been made and are still underway to eliminate the danger of war
are not to be underrated. On the contrary, support should be given to the good
will of the very many leaders who work hard to do away with war, which they abominate.
These men, although burdened by the extremely weighty preoccupations of their
high office, are nonetheless moved by the very grave peacemaking task to which
they are bound, even if they cannot ignore the complexity of matters as they
stand. We should fervently ask God to give these men the strength to go forward
perseveringly and to follow through courageously on this work of building peace
with vigor. It is a work of supreme love for mankind. Today it certainly
demands that they extend their thoughts and their spirit beyond the confines of
their own nation, that they put aside national selfishness and ambition to
dominate other nations, and that they nourish a profound reverence for the
whole of humanity, which is already making its way so laboriously toward
greater unity.
The problems of peace and of
disarmament have already been the subject of extensive, strenuous and constant
examination. Together with international meetings dealing with these problems,
such studies should be regarded as the first steps toward solving these serious
questions, and should be promoted with even greater urgency by way of yielding
concrete results in the future.
Nevertheless, men should take heed
not to entrust themselves only to the efforts of some, while not caring about
their own attitudes. For government officials who must at one and the same time
guarantee the good of their own people and promote the universal good are very
greatly dependent on public opinion and feeling. It does them no good to work
for peace as long as feelings of hostility, contempt and distrust, as well as
racial hatred and unbending ideologies, continue to divide men and place them
in opposing camps. Consequently there is above all a pressing need for a
renewed education of attitudes and for new inspiration in public opinion. Those
who are dedicated to the work of education, particularly of the young, or who
mold public opinion, should consider it their most weighty task to instruct all
in fresh sentiments of peace. Indeed, we all need a change of heart as we
regard the entire world and those tasks which we can perform in unison for the
betterment of our race.
But we should not let false hope
deceive us. For unless enmities and hatred are put away and firm, honest
agreements concerning world peace are reached in the future, humanity, which
already is in the middle of a grave crisis, even though it is endowed with
remarkable knowledge, will perhaps be brought to that dismal hour in which it
will experience no peace other than the dreadful peace of death. But, while we
say this, the Church of Christ, present in the midst of the anxiety of this
age, does not cease to hope most firmly. She intends to propose to our age over
and over again, in season and out of season, this apostolic message: "Behold,
now is the acceptable time for a change of heart; behold! now is the day of
salvation."(4)
SECTION II
Setting Up An International Community
Setting Up An International Community
83. In order to build up peace above
all the causes of discord among men, especially injustice, which foment wars must
be rooted out. Not a few of these causes come from excessive economic
inequalities and from putting off the steps needed to remedy them. Other causes
of discord, however, have their source in the desire to dominate and in a
contempt for persons. And, if we look for deeper causes, we find them in human
envy, distrust, pride, and other egotistical passions. Man cannot bear so many
ruptures in the harmony of things. Consequently, the world is constantly beset
by strife and violence between men, even when no war is being waged. Besides,
since these same evils are present in the relations between various nations as
well, in order to overcome or forestall them and to keep violence once
unleashed within limits it is absolutely necessary for countries to cooperate
more advantageously and more closely together and to organize together
international bodies and to work tirelessly for the creation of organizations
which will foster peace.
84. In view of the increasingly
close ties of mutual dependence today between all the inhabitants and peoples
of the earth, the apt pursuit and efficacious attainment of the universal
common good now require of the community of nations that it organize itself in
a manner suited to its present responsibilities, especially toward the many
parts of the world which are still suffering from unbearable want.
To reach this goal, organizations of
the international community, for their part, must make provision for men's
different needs, both in the fields of social life-such as food supplies, health,
education, labor and also in certain special circumstances which can crop up
here and there, e.g., the need to promote the general improvement of developing
countries, or to alleviate the distressing conditions in which refugees
dispersed throughout the world find themselves, or also to assist migrants and
their families.
Already existing international and
regional organizations are certainly well-deserving of the human race. These
are the first efforts at laying the foundations on an international level for a
community of all men to work for the solution to the serious problems of our
times, to encourage progress everywhere, and to obviate wars of whatever kind.
In all of these activities the Church takes joy in the spirit of true
brotherhood flourishing between Christians and non-Christians as it strives to
make ever more strenuous efforts to relieve abundant misery.
85. The present solidarity of
mankind also calls for a revival of greater international cooperation in the
economic field. Although nearly all peoples have become autonomous, they are
far from being free of every form of undue dependence, and far from escaping
all danger of serious internal difficulties.
The development of a nation depends
on human and financial aids. The citizens of each country must be prepared by
education and professional training to discharge the various tasks of economic
and social life. But this in turn requires the aid of foreign specialists who,
when they give aid, will not act as overlords, but as helpers and fellow-workers.
Developing nations will not be able to procure material assistance unless
radical changes are made in the established procedures of modern world
commerce. Other aid should be provided as well by advanced nations in the form
of gifts, loans or financial investments. Such help should be accorded with
generosity and without greed on the one side, and received with complete
honesty on the other side.
If an authentic economic order is to
be established on a world-wide basis, an end will have to be put to
profiteering, to national ambitions, to the appetite for political supremacy,
to militaristic calculations, and to machinations for the sake of spreading and
imposing ideologies.
86. The following norms seem useful
for such cooperation:
a) Developing nations should take
great pains to seek as the object for progress to express and secure the total
human fulfillment of their citizens. They should bear in mind that progress
arises and grows above all out of the labor and genius of the nations themselves
because it has to be based, not only on foreign aid, but especially on the full
utilization of their own resources, and on the development of their own culture
and traditions. Those who exert the greatest influence on others should be
outstanding in this respect.
b) On the other hand, it is a very
important duty of the advanced nations to help the developing nations in
discharging their above-mentioned responsibilities. They should therefore
gladly carry out on their own home front those spiritual and material
readjustments that are required for the realization of this universal
cooperation.
Consequently, in business dealings
with weaker and poorer nations, they should be careful to respect their profit,
for these countries need the income they receive on the sale of their homemade
products to support themselves.
c) It is the role of the
international community to coordinate and promote development, but in such a
way that the resources earmarked for this purpose will be allocated as
effectively as possible, and with complete equity. It is likewise this
community's duty, with due regard for the principle of subsidiarity, so to
regulate economic relations throughout the world that these will be carried out
in accordance with the norms of justice.
Suitable organizations should be set
up to foster and regulate international business affairs, particularly with the
underdeveloped countries, and to compensate for losses resulting from an
excessive inequality of power among the various nations. This type of organization,
in unison with technical cultural and financial aid, should provide the help
which developing nations need so that they can advantageously pursue their own
economic advancement.
d) In many cases there is an urgent
need to revamp economic and social structures. But one must guard against
proposals of technical solutions that are untimely. This is particularly true
of those solutions providing man with material conveniences, but nevertheless
contrary to man's spiritual nature and advancement. For "not by bread
alone does man live, but by every word which proceeds from the mouth of
God" (Matt. 4:4). Every sector of the family of man carries within itself
and in its best traditions some portion of the spiritual treasure entrusted by
God to humanity, even though many may not be aware of the source from which it
comes.
87. International cooperation is
needed today especially for those peoples who, besides facing so many other
difficulties, likewise undergo pressures due to a rapid increase in population.
There is an urgent need to explore, with the full and intense cooperation of
all, and especially of the wealthier nations, ways whereby the human
necessities of food and a suitable education can be furnished and shared with
the entire human community. But some peoples could greatly improve upon the
conditions of their life if they would change over from antiquated methods of
farming to the new technical methods, applying them with needed prudence
according to their own circumstances. Their life would likewise be improved by
the establishment of a better social order and by a fairer system for the
distribution of land ownership.
Governments undoubtedly have rights
and duties, within the limits of their proper competency, regarding the
population problem in their respective countries, for instance, in the line of
social and family life legislation, or regarding the migration of
country-dwellers to the cities, or with respect to information concerning the
condition and needs of the country. Since men today are giving thought to this
problem and are so greatly disturbed over it, it is desirable in addition that
Catholic specialists, especially in the universities, skillfully pursue and
develop studies and projects on all these matters.
But there are many today who maintain
that the increase in world population, or at least the population increase in
some countries, must be radically curbed by every means possible and by any
kind of intervention on the part of public authority. In view of this
contention, the council urges everyone to guard against solutions, whether
publicly or privately supported, or at times even imposed, which are contrary
to the moral law. For in keeping with man's inalienable right to marry and
generate children, a decision concerning the number of children they will have
depends on the right judgment of the parents and it cannot in any way be left
to the judgment of public authority. But since the judgment of the parents
presupposes a rightly formed conscience, it is of the utmost importance that the
way be open for everyone to develop a correct and genuinely human
responsibility which respects the divine law and takes into consideration the
circumstances of the situation and the time. But sometimes this requires an
improvement in educational and social conditions, and, above all, formation in
religion or at least a complete moral training. Men should discreetly be
informed, furthermore, of scientific advances in exploring methods whereby
spouses can be helped in regulating the number of their children and whose
safeness has been well proven and whose harmony with the moral order has been
ascertained.
88. Christians should cooperate
willingly and wholeheartedly in establishing an international order that
includes a genuine respect for all freedoms and amicable brotherhood between
all. This is all the more pressing since the greater part of the world is still
suffering from so much poverty that it is as if Christ Himself were crying out
in these poor to beg the charity of the disciples. Do not let men, then, be
scandalized because some countries with a majority of citizens who are counted
as Christians have an abundance of wealth, whereas others are deprived of the
necessities of life and are tormented with hunger, disease, and every kind of
misery. The spirit of poverty and charity are the glory and witness of the
Church of Christ.
Those Christians are to be praised
and supported, therefore, who volunteer their services to help other men and
nations. Indeed, it is the duty of the whole People of God, following the word
and example of the bishops, to alleviate as far as they are able the sufferings
of the modern age. They should do this too, as was the ancient custom in the
Church, out of the substance of their goods, and not only out of what is
superfluous.
The procedure of collecting and
distributing aids, without being inflexible and completely uniform, should
nevertheless be carried on in an orderly fashion in dioceses, nations, and
throughout the entire world. Wherever it seems convenient, this activity of
Catholics should be carried on in unison with other Christian brothers. For the
spirit of charity does not forbid, but on the contrary commands that charitable
activity be carried out in a careful and orderly manner. Therefore, it is
essential for those who intend to dedicate themselves to the services of the
developing nations to be properly trained in appropriate institutes,
89. Since, in virtue of her mission
received from God, the Church preaches the Gospel to all men and dispenses the
treasures of grace, she contributes to the ensuring of peace everywhere on
earth and to the placing of the fraternal exchange between men on solid ground
by imparting knowledge of the divine and natural law. Therefore, to encourage
and stimulate cooperation among men, the Church must be clearly present in the
midst of the community of nations both through her official channels and
through the full and sincere collaboration of all Christians-a collaboration
motivated solely by the desire to be of service to all.
This will come about more
effectively if the faithful themselves, conscious of their responsibility as
men and as Christians will exert their influence in their own milieu to arouse
a ready willingness to cooperate with the international community. Special care
must be given, in both religious and civil education, to the formation of youth
in this regard.
90. An outstanding form of
international activity on the part of Christians is found in the joint efforts
which, both as individuals and in groups, they contribute to institutes already
established or to be established for the encouragement of cooperation among
nations. There are also various Catholic associations on an international level
which can contribute in many ways to the building up of a peaceful and fraternal
community of nations. These should be strengthened by augmenting in them the
number of well qualified collaborators, by increasing needed resources, and by
advantageously fortifying the coordination of their energies. For today both
effective action and the need for dialogue demand joint projects. Moreover,
such associations contribute much to the development of a universal
outlook-something certainly appropriate for Catholics. They also help to form
an awareness of genuine universal solidarity and responsibility.
Finally, it is very much to be
desired that Catholics, in order to fulfill their role properly in the
international community, will seek to cooperate actively and in a positive
manner both with their separated brothers who together with them profess the
Gospel of charity and with all men thirsting for true peace.
The council, considering the
immensity of the hardships which still afflict the greater part of mankind
today, regards it as most opportune that an organism of the universal Church be
set up in order that both the justice and love of Christ toward the poor might
be developed everywhere. The role of such an organism would be to stimulate the
Catholic community to promote progress in needy regions and international
social justice.
91. Drawn from the treasures of
Church teaching, the proposals of this sacred synod look to the assistance of
every man of our time, whether he believes in God, or does not explicitly
recognize Him. If adopted, they will promote among men a sharper insight into their
full destiny, and thereby lead them to fashion the world more to man's
surpassing dignity, to search for a brotherhood which is universal and more
deeply rooted, and to meet the urgencies of our ages with a gallant and unified
effort born of love.
Undeniably this conciliar program is
but a general one in several of its parts; and deliberately so, given the
immense variety of situations and forms of human culture in the world. Indeed
while it presents teaching already accepted in the Church, the program will
have to be followed up and amplified since it sometimes deals with matters in a
constant state of development. Still, we have relied on the word of God and the
spirit of the Gospel. Hence we entertain the hope that many of our proposals
will prove to be of substantial benefit to everyone, especially after they have
been adapted to individual nations and mentalities by the faithful, under the
guidance of their pastors.
92. By virtue of her mission to shed
on the whole world the radiance of the Gospel message, and to unify under one
Spirit all men of whatever nation, race or culture, the Church stands forth as
a sign of that brotherhood which allows honest dialogue and gives it vigor.
Such a mission requires in the first
place that we foster within the Church herself mutual esteem, reverence and
harmony, through the full recognition of lawful diversity. Thus all those who
compose the one People of God, both pastors and the general faithful, can
engage in dialogue with ever abounding fruitfulness. For the bonds which unite
the faithful are mightier than anything dividing them. Hence, let there be
unity in what is necessary; freedom in what is unsettled, and charity in any
case.
Our hearts embrace also those
brothers and communities not yet living with us in full communion; to them we
are linked nonetheless by our profession of the Father and the Son and the Holy
Spirit, and by the bond of charity. We do not forget that the unity of
Christians is today awaited and desired by many, too, who do not believe in Christ;
for the farther it advances toward truth and love under the powerful impulse of
the Holy Spirit, the more this unity will be a harbinger of unity and peace for
the world at large. Therefore, by common effort and in ways which are today
increasingly appropriate for seeking this splendid goal effectively, let us
take pains to pattern ourselves after the Gospel more exactly every day, and
thus work as brothers in rendering service to the human family. For, in Christ
Jesus this family is called to the family of the sons of God.
We think cordially too of all who
acknowledge God, and who preserve in their traditions precious elements of
religion and humanity. We want frank conversation to compel us all to receive
the impulses of the Spirit faithfully and to act on them energetically.
For our part, the desire for such
dialogue, which can lead to truth through love alone, excludes no one, though
an appropriate measure of prudence must undoubtedly be exercised. We include
those who cultivate outstanding qualities of the human spirit, but do not yet
acknowledge the Source of these qualities. We include those who oppress the
Church and harass her in manifold ways. Since God the Father is the origin and
purpose of all men, we are all called to be brothers. Therefore, if we have
been summoned to the same destiny, human and divine, we can and we should work
together without violence and deceit in order to build up the world in genuine
peace.
93. Mindful of the Lord's saying:
"by this will all men know that you are my disciples, if you have love for
one another" (John 13:35), Christians cannot yearn for anything more
ardently than to serve the men of the modern world with mounting generosity and
success. Therefore, by holding faithfully to the Gospel and benefiting from its
resources, by joining with every man who loves and practices justice,
Christians have shouldered a gigantic task for fulfillment in this world, a
task concerning which they must give a reckoning to to Him who will judge every
man on the last of days.
Not everyone who cries, "Lord,
Lord," will enter into the kingdom of heaven, but those who do the
Father's will by taking a strong grip on the work at hand. Now, the Father
wills that in all men we recognize Christ our brother and love Him effectively,
in word and in deed. By thus giving witness to the truth, we will share with
others the mystery of the heavenly Father's love. As a consequence, men
throughout the world will be aroused to a lively hope-the gift of the Holy
Spirit-that some day at last they will be caught up in peace and utter
happiness in that fatherland radiant with the glory of the Lord.
Now to Him who is able to accomplish
all things in a measure far beyond what we ask or conceive, in keeping with the
power that is at work in us-to Him be glory in the Church and in Christ Jesus,
down through all the ages of time without end. Amen. (Eph. 3:20-21).
NOTES
Preface
1. The Pastoral Constitution
"De Ecclesia in Mundo Huius Temporis" is made up of two parts; yet it
constitutes an organic unity. By way of explanation: the constitution is called
"pastoral" because, while resting on doctrinal principles, it seeks
to express the relation of the Church to the world and modern mankind. The
result is that, on the one hand, a pastoral slant is present in the first part,
and, on the other hand, a doctrinal slant is present in the second part. In the
first part, the Church develops her teaching on man, on the world which is the
enveloping context of man's existence, and on man's relations to his fellow men.
In part two, the Church gives closer consideration to various aspects of modern
life and human society; special consideration is given to those questions and
problems which, in this general area, seem to have a greater urgency in our
day. As a result in part two the subject matter which is viewed in the light of
doctrinal principles is made up of diverse elements. Some elements have a
permanent value; others, only a transitory one. Consequently, the constitution
must be interpreted according to the general norms of theological
interpretation. Interpreters must bear in mind-especially in part two-the
changeable circumstances which the subject matter, by its very nature,
involves.
2. Cf. John 18:37; Matt. 20:28; Mark
10:45.
Introduction
1. Cf. Rom. 7:14 ff.
2. Cf. 2 Cor. 5:15.
3. Cf. Acts 4:12.
4. Cf. Heb. 13:8.
5. Cf. Col. 1:15.
PART I
Chapter I
1. Cf. Gen. 1:26, Wis. 2;23.
2. Cf. Sir. 17:3-10.
3. Cf. Rom. 1:21-25.
4. Cf. John 8:34.
5. Cf. Dan. 3:57-90.
6. Cf. 1 Cor. 6:13-20.
7. Cf. 1 Kings 16:7; Jer. 17:10.
8. Cf. Sir. 17:7-8.
9. Cf. Rom. 2:15-16.
10. Cf. Pius XII, radio address on
the correct formation of a Christian conscience in the young, March 23, 1952:
AAS (1952), p. 271.
11. Cf. Matt. 22:37-40; Gal. 5:14.
12. Cf. Sir. 15:14.
13 Cf. 2 Cor. 5:10.
14 Cf. Wis. 1:13; 2:23-24; Rom.
5:21; 6:23; Jas. 1:15.
15. Cf. 1 Cor. 15:56-57.
16. Cf. Pius XI, encyclical letter
Divini Redemptoris, March 19, 1937: AAS 29 (1937), pp. 65-106; Pius XII,
encyclical letter Ad Apostolorum Principis, June 29, 1958: AAS 50 (1958) pp.
601-614; John XXIII, encyclical letter Mater et Magistra May 15, 1961: AAS 53
(1961), pp. 451-453; Paul VI, encyclical Ecclesiam Suam, Aug. 6, 1964: AAS 56
(1964), pp. 651-653.
17. Cf. Second Vatican Council,
Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Chapter I, n. 8: AAS 57 (1965), p. 12.
18 Cf. Phil. 1:27.
19. St. Augustine, Confessions I, 1:
PL 32, 661.
20. Cf. Rom. 5: 14. Cf. Tertullian,
De carnis resurrectione 6: "The shape that the slime of the earth was
given was intended with a view to Christ, the future man.": P. 2, 282;
CSEL 47, p. 33, 1. 12-13.
21. Cf. 2 Cor. 4:4.
22. Cf. Second Council of
Constantinople, canon 7: "The divine Word was not changed into a human
nature, nor was a human nature absorbed by the Word." Denzinger 219 (428);
Cf. also Third Council of Constantinople: "For just as His most holy and
immaculate human nature, though deified, was not destroyed (theotheisa ouk
anerethe), but rather remained in its proper state and mode of being":
Denzinger 291 (556); Cf. Council of Chalce, don:" to be acknowledged in
two natures, without confusion change, division, or separation." Denzinger
148 (302).
23. Cf. Third Council of
Constantinople: "and so His human will, though deified, is not
destroyed": Denzinger 291 (556).
24. Cf. Heb. 4:15.
25. Cf. 2 Cor. 5:18-19; Col.
1:2O-22.
26. Cf. 1 Pet. 2:21; Matt. 16:24;
Luke 14:27.
27. Cf. Rom. 8:29; Col. 3:10-14.
28. Cf. Rom. 8:1-11.
29. Cf. 2 Cor. 4:14.
30. Cf. Phil. 3:19; Rom. 8:17.
31. Cf. Second Vatican Council,
Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Chapter 2, n. 16: AAS 57 (1965), p. 20.
32. Cf. Rom. 8:32.
33. Cf. The Byzantine Easter
Liturgy.
34. Cf. Rom. 8:15 and Gal. 4:6; cf.
also John 1:22 and John 3:1-2.
Chapter 2
1. Cf. John XXIII, encyclical
letter, Mater et Magistra, May 15, 1961: AAS 53 (1961), pp. 401-464, and
encyclical letter Pacem in Terris, April 11, 1963: AAS 55 (1963), pp. 257-304;
Paul VI encyclical letter Ecclesiam Suam, Aug. 6, 1964: AAS 54 (1864) pp.
609-659.
2. Cf. Luke 17:33.
3. Cf. St. Thomas, 1 Ethica Lect. 1.
4. Cf. John XXIII, encyclical letter
Mater et Magistra: AAS 53 (1961), p. 418. Cf. also Pius XI, encyclical letter
Quadragesimo Anno: AAS 23 (1931), p. 222 ff.
5. Cf. John XXIII, encyclical letter
Mater et Magistra: AAS 53 (1961) .
6. Cf. Mark 2:27.
7. Cf. John XXIII, encyclical letter
Pacem in Terris: AAS 55 (1963), p. 266.
8. Cf. Jas. 2, 15-16.
9. Cf. Luke 16:18-31.
10. Cf. John XXIII, encyclical
letter Pacem in Terris: AAS 55 (1963), p. 299 and 300.
11. Cf. Luke 6:37-38; Matt. 7:1-2;
Rom. 2:1-11; 14:10 14: 10-12.
12. Cf. Matt. 5:43-47.
13. Cf. Dogmatic Constitution on the
Church, Chapter II, n. 9: AAS 57 (1965). pp. 12-13.
14. Cf. Exodus 24:1-8.
Chapter 3
1. Cf. Gen. 1:26-27; 9:3; Wis. 9:3.
2. Cf. Ps. 8:7 and 10.
3. Cf. John XXIII, encyclical letter
Pacem in Terris: AAS 55 (1963), p. 297.
4. Cf. message to all mankind sent
by the Fathers at the beginning of the Second Vatican Council, Oct. 20, 1962:
AAS 54 (1962), p. 823.
5. Cf. Paul VI, address to the
diplomatic corps Jan 7 1965: AAS 57 (1965), p. 232.
6. Cf. First Vatican Council,
Dogmatic Constitution on the Catholic Faith, Chapter III: Denz. 1785-1186
(3004-3005).
7. Cf. Msgr. Pio Paschini, Vita e
opere di Galileo Galilei, 2 volumes, Vatican Press (1964).
8. Cf. Matt. 24:13; 13:24-30 and
36-43.
9. Cf. 2 Cor. 6:10.
10. Cf. John 1:3 and 14.
11. Cf. Eph. 1:10.
12. Cf. John 3:16; Rom. 5:8.
13. Cf. Acts 2:36; Matt. 28:18.
14. Cf. Rom. 15:16.
15. Cf. Acts 1:7.
16. Cf. 1 Cor. 7:31; St. Irenaeus,
Adversus haereses, V, 36, PG, VIII, 1221.
17. Cf. 2 Cor. 5:2; 2 Pet. 3:13.
18. Cf. 1 Cor. 2:9; Apoc. 21:4-5.
19. Cf. 1 Cor. 15:42 and 53.
20. Cf. 1 Cor. 13:8; 3:14.
21. Cf. Rom. 8:19-21.
22. Cf. Luke 9:25.
23. Cf. Pius XI, encyclical letter
Quadragesimo Anno: AAS 23 (1931), p. 207.
24. Preface of the Feast of Christ
the King.
Chapter 4
1. Cf. Paul VI, encyclical letter
Ecclesiam suam, III: AAS 56 (1964), pp. 637-659.
2. Cf. Titus 3:4: "love of
mankind."
3. Cf. Eph. 1:3; 5:6; 13-14, 23.
4. Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic
Constitution on the Church, Chapter I, n. 8: AAS 57 (1965), p. 12.
5. Ibid., Chapter II, no. 9: AAS 57
(1965), p. 14; Cf. n. 8: AAS loc. cit., p. 11.
6. Ibid., Chapter I, n. 8: AAS 57
(1965), p. 11.
7. Cf. ibid., Chapter IV, n. 38: AAS
57 (1965), p. 43, with note 120.
8. Cf. Rom. 8:14-17.
9. Cf. Matt. 22:39.
10. Dogmatic Constitution on the
Church, Chapter II, n. 9: AAS 57 (1965), pp. 12-14.
11. Cf. Pius XII, Address to the
International Union of Institutes of Archeology, History and History of Art,
March 9, 1956: AAS 48 (1965), p. 212: "Its divine Founder, Jesus Christ,
has not given it any mandate or fixed any end of the cultural order. The goal
which Christ assigns to it is strictly religious. . . The Church must lead men
to God, in order that they may be given over to him without reserve.... The
Church can never lose sight of the strictly religious, supernatural goal. The
meaning of all its activities, down to the last canon of its Code, can only
cooperate directly or indirectly in this goal."
12. Dogmatic Constitution on the
Church, Chapter I, n. 1: AAS 57 (1965), p. 5.
13. Cf. Heb. 13:14.
14. Cf. 2 Thess. 3:6-13; Eph. 4:28.
15 Cf. Is. 58: 1-12.
16 Cf. Matt. 23:3-23; Mark 7: 10-13.
17. Cf. John XXIII, encyclical
letter Mater et Magistra, IV: AAS 53 (1961), pp. 456-457; cf. I: AAS loc. cit.,
pp. 407, 410-411.
18. Cf. Dogmatic Constitution on the
Church, Chapter III, n. 28: AAS 57 (1965), p. 35.
19. Ibid., n. 28: AAS loc. cit. pp.
35-36.
20. Cf. St. Ambrose, De virginitate,
Chapter VIII, n. 48: ML 16, 278.
21. Cf. Dogmatic Constitution on the
Church, Chapter II, n. 15: AAS 57 (1965) p. 20.
22. Cf. Dogmatic Constitution on the
Church, Chapter II, n. 13: AAS 57 (1965), p. 17.
23. Cf. Justin, Dialogus cum
Tryphene, Chapter 110; MG 6, 729 (ed. Otto), 1897, pp. 391-393: ". . .but
the greater the number of persecutions which are inflicted upon us, so much the
greater the number of other men who become devout believers through the name of
Jesus." Cf. Tertullian, Apologeticus, Chapter L, 13: "Every time you
mow us down like grass, we increase in number: the blood of Christians is a
seed!" Cf. Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Chapter II, no. 9: AAS 57
(1965), p. 14.
24. Cf. Dogmatic Constitution on the
Church, Chapter II n. 15: AAS 57 (1965), p. 20.
25. Cf. Paul VI, address given on
Feb. 3, 1965.
PART II
Chapter 1
1. Cf. St. Augustine, De Bene
coniugali PL 40, 375-376 and 394, St. Thomas, Summa Theologica, Suppl. Quaest.
49, art. 3 ad 1, Decretum pro Armenis: Denz.-Schoen. 1327; Pius XI, encyclical
letter Casti Connubii: AAS 22 (1930, pp. 547-548; Denz.-Schoen. 3703-3714.
2. Cf. Pius XI, encyclical letter
Casti Connubii: AAS 22 (1930), pp. 546-547; Denz.-Schoen. 3706.
3. Cf. Osee 2; Jer. 3:6-13; Ezech.
16 and 23; Is. 54.
4. Cf. Matt. 9: 15; Mark 2: 19-20;
Luke 5:34-35; John 3:29; Cf. also 2 Cor. 11:2; Eph. 5:27; Apoc. 19:7-8; 21:2
and 9.
5. Cf. Eph. 5:25.
6. Cf. Second Vatican Council,
Dogmatic Constitution on the Church: AAS 57 (1965), pp. 15-16; 40-41; 47.
7. Pius XI, encyclical letter Casti
Connubii: AAS 22 (1930), p. 583.
8. Cf. 1 Tim. 5:3.
9. Cf. Eph. 5:32.
10. Cf. Gen. 2:22-24, Prov. 5:15-20;
31:10-31; Tob. 8:4-8; Cant. 1:2-3; 1:16; 4:16-5, 1; 7:8-14; 1 Cor. 7:3-6; Eph
5:25-33.
11. Cf. Pius XI, encyclical letter
Casti Connubii: AAS 22 (1930), p. 547 and 548; Denz.-Schoen. 3707.
12. Cf. 1 Cor. 7:5.
13. Cf. Pius XII, Address Tra le
visite, Jan. 20, 1958: AAS 50 (1958), p. 91.
14. Cf. Pius XI, encyclical letter
Casti Connubii: AAS 22 (1930): Denz.-Schoen. 3716-3718, Pius XII, Allocutio
Conventui Unionis Italicae inter Obstetrices, Oct. 29, 1951: AAS 43 (1951), pp.
835-854, Paul VI, address to a group of cardinals, June 23 1964: AAS 56 (1964),
pp. 581-589. Certain questions which need further and more careful
investigation have been handed over, at the command of the Supreme Pontiff, to
a commission for the study of population, family, and births, in order that,
after it fulfills its function, the Supreme Pontiff may pass judgment. With the
doctrine of the magisterium in this state, this holy synod does not intend to
propose immediately concrete solutions.
15. Cf. Eph. 5:16; Col. 4:5.
16. Cf. Sacramentarium Gregorianum:
PL 78, 262.
17. Cf. Rom. 5:15 and 18; 6:5-11;
Gal. 2:20.
18. Cf. Eph. 5:25-27.
Chapter 2
1. Cf. Introductory statement of
this constitution, n. 4 ff.
2. Cf. Col. 3:2.
3. Cf. Gen. 1:28.
4. Cf. Prov. 8:30-31.
5. Cf. St. Irenaeus, Adversus
haereses. III, 11, 8 (ed. Sagnard p. 200; cf. ibid., 16, 6: pp. 290-292; 21,
10-22: pp. 370-372; 22 3: p. 378; etc.)
6. Cf. Eph. 1:10.
7. Cf. the words of Pius XI to
Father M. D. Roland-Gosselin "It is necessary never to lose sight of the
fact that the objective of the Church is to evangelize, not to civilize. If it
civilizes, it is for the sake of evangelization." (Semaines sociales de
France, Versailles, 1936, pp. 461-462).
8. First Vatican Council,
Constitution on the Catholic Faith: Denzinger 1795, 1799 (3015, 3019). Cf. Pius
XI, encyclical letter Quadragesimo Anno: AAS 23 (1931), p. 190.
9. Cf. John XXIII, encyclical letter
Pacem in Terris: AAS 55 (1963), p. 260.
10. Cf. John XXIII, encyclical
letter Pacem in Terris: AAS 55 (1963), p. 283; Pius XII, radio address, Dec.
24, 1941: AAS 34 (1942), pp. 16-17.
11. John XXIII, encyclical letter
Pacem in Terris: AAS 55 (1963), p. 260.
12. Cf. John XXIII, prayer delivered
on Oct. 11, 1962, at the beginning of the council: AAS 54 (1962), p. 792.
13. Cf. Constitution on the Sacred
Liturgy, n. 123: AAS 56 (1964), p. 131; Paul VI, discourse to the artists of
Rome: AAS 56 (1964), pp. 439-442.
14. Cf. Second Vatican Council,
Decree on Priestly Training and Declaration on Christian Education.
15. Cf. Dogmatic Constitution on the
Church, Chapter IV, n. 37: AAS 57 (1965), pp. 42-43.
Chapter 3
1. Cf. Pius XII, address on March
23, 1952: AAS 44 (1953), p. 273; John XXIII, allocution to the Catholic
Association of Italian Workers, May 1, 1959: AAS 51 (1959), p. 358.
2. Cf. Pius XI, encyclical letter
Quadragesimo Anno: AAS 23 (1931), p. 190 ff; Pius XII, address of March 23,
1952: AAS 44 (1952), p. 276 ff; John XXIII, encyclical letter Mater et
Magistra: AAS 53 (19ffl), p. 450; Vatican Council II, Decree on the Media of
Social Communication, Chapter I, n. 6 AAS 56 (1964), p. 147.
3. Cf. Matt. 16:26, Luke 16:1-31,
Col. 3:17.
4. Cf. Leo XIII, encyclical letter
Libertas, in Acta Leonis XIII, t. VIII, p. 220 ff; Pius XI, encyclical letter
Quadragesimo Anno: AAS 23 (1931), p. 191 ff; Pius XI, encyclical letter Divini
Redemptoris: AAS 39 (1937), p. 65 ff; Pius XII, Nuntius natalicius 1941: AAS 34
(1942), p. 10 ff: John XXIII, encyclical letter Mater et Magistra: AAS 53
(1961), pp. 401-464.
5. In reference to agricultural
problems cf. especially John XXIII, encyclical letter Mater et Magistra: AAS 53
(1961),
6. Cf. Leo XIII, encyclical letter
Rerum Novarum: AAS 23 (1890-91), p. 649, p. 662; Pius XI, encyclical letter
Quadragesimo Anno: AAS 23 (193-1), pp. 200-201; Pius XI, encyclical letter
Divini Redemptoris: AAS 29 (1937), p. 92; Pius XII, radio address on Christmas
Eve 1942: AAS 35 (1943) p. 20; Pius XII, allocution of June 13, 1943: AAS 35
(1943), p. 172; Pius XII, radio address to the workers of Spain, March 11,
1951: AAS 43 (1951), p. 215; John XXIII, encyclical letter Mater et Magistra:
AAS 53 (1961), p. 419.
7. Cf. John XXIII, encyclical letter
Mater et Magistra: AAS 53 (1961), pp. 408, 424, 427; however, the word
"curatione" has been taken from the Latin text of the encyclical
letter Quadragesimo Anno: AAS 23 (1931) p. 199. Under the aspect of the
evolution of the question cf. also: Pius XII, allocution of June 3, 1950: AAS
42 (1950) pp. 485-488; Paul VI, allocution of June 8, 1964: AAS 56 (1964), pp.
573-579.
8. Cf. Pius XII, encyclical Sertum
Laetitiae: AAS 31 (1939), p. 642, John XXIII, consistorial allocution: AAS 52
(1960), pp. 5-11; John XXIII, encyclical letter Mater et Magistra: AAS 53
(1961), p. 411.
9. Cf. St. Thomas, Summa Theologica:
II-II, q. 32, a. 5 ad 2; Ibid. q. 66, a. 2: cf. explanation in Leo XIII,
encyclical letter Rerum Novarum: AAS 23 (1890-91) p. 651; cf. also Pius XII
allocution of June 1, 1941: AAS 33 (1941), p. 199; Pius XII, birthday radio
address 1954: AAS 47 (1955), p. 27.
10. Cf. St. Basil, Hom. in illud
Lucae "Destruam horrea mea," n. 2 (PG 31, 263); Lactantius, Divinarum
institutionum, lib. V. on justice (PL 6, 565 B); St. Augustine, In Ioann. Ev.
tr. 50, n. 6 (PL 35, 1760); St. Augustine, Enarratio in Ps. CXLVII, 12 (PL 37,
192); St. Gregory the Great, Homiliae in Ev., hom. 20 (PL 76, 1165); St.
Gregory the Great, Regulae Pastoralis liber, pars III c. 21 (PL 77 87); St.
Bonaventure, In III Sent. d. 33, dub. 1 (ed Quacracchi, III, 728); St.
Bonaventure, In IV Sent. d. 15, p. II, a. a q. 1 (ed. cit. IV, 371 b ); q. de
superfluo (ms. Assisi Bibl. Comun. 186, ff. 112a-113a); St. Albert the Great,
In III Sent., d. 33, a.3, sol. 1 (ed. Borgnet XXVIII, 611); Id. In IV Sent. d.
15, a. 1 (ed. cit. XXIX, 494-497). As for the determination of what is
superfluous in our day and age, cf. John XXIII, radio-television message of
Sept. 11, 1962: AAS 54 (1962) p. 682: "The obligation of every man, the
urgent obligation of the Christian man, is to reckon what is superfluous by the
measure of the needs of others, and to see to it that the administration and
the distribution of created goods serve the common good."
11. In that case, the old principle
holds true: "In extreme necessity all goods are common, that is, all goods
are to be shared." On the other hand, for the order, extension, and manner
by which the principle is appplied in the proposed text, besides the modern
authors: cf. St. Thomas, Summa Theologica II-II, q. 66, a. 7. obviously, for
the correct application of the principle, all the conditions that are morally
required must be met.
12. Cf. Gratiam, Decretum, C. 21,
dist. LXXXVI (ed. Friedberg I, 302). This axiom is also found already in PL 54,
591 A (cf. in Antonianum 27 (1952) 349-366)i.
13. Cf. Leo XIII, encyclical letter
Rerum Novarum: AAS 23 (1890-91) pp. 643-646, Pius XI, encyclical letter
Quadragesimo Anno: AAS 23 (1931) p. 191; Pius XII, radio message of June 1,
1941: AAS 33 (1941), p. 199; Pius XII, radio message on Christmas Eve 1942: AAS
35 (1943), p. 17; Pius XII, radio message of Sept. 1, 1944: AAS 36 (1944) p.
253; John XXIII, encyclical letter Mater et Magistra: AAS 53 (1961) pp.
428-429.
14. Cf. Pius XI, encyclical letter
Quadragesimo Anno: AAS 23 (1931) p. 214; John XXIII, encyclical letter Mater et
Magistra: AAS 53 (1961), p. 429.
15. Cf. Pius XII, radio message of
Pentecost 1941: AAS 44 (1941) p. 199, John XXIII, encyclical letter Mater et
Magistra: AAS 53 (1961) p. 430.
16. For the right use of goods
according to the doctrine of the New Testament, cf. Luke 3:11, 10:30 ff; 11:41;
1 Pet. 5:3, Mark 8:36; 12:39-41; Jas. 5:1-6; 1 Tim. 6:8; Eph. 1:28; a Cor.
8:13; 1 John 3:17 ff.
Chapter 4
1. Cf. John XXIII, encyclical letter
Mater et Magistra: AAS 53 (1961), p. 417.
2. Cf. John XXIII, ibid.
3. Cf. Rom. 13:1-5.
4. Cf. Rom. 13:5.
5. Cf. Pius XII, radio message, Dec.
24, 1942: AAS 35 (1943) pp. 9-24; Dec. 24, 1944: AAS 37 (1945), pp. 11-17; John
XXIII encyclical letter Pacem In Terris: AAS 55 (1963), pp. 263, 271 277 and
278.
6. Cf. Pius XII, radio message of
June 7, 1941: AAS 33 (1941) p. 200: John XXIII, encyclical letter Pacem In
Terris: 1.c., p. 273 and 274.
7. Cf. John XXIII, encyclical letter
Mater et Magistra: AAS 53 (1961), p. 416.
8. Pius XI, allocution "Ai
dirigenti della Federazione Universitaria Cattolica". Discorsi di Pio XI
(ed. Bertetto), Turin, vol. 1 (1960), p. 743.
9. Cf. Second Vatican Council,
Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, n. 13: AAS 57 (1965), p. 17.
10. Cf. Luke 2:14.
Chapter 5
1. Cf. John XXIII, encyclical letter
Pacem in Terris, April 11, 1963: AAS 55 (1963), p. 291; "Therefore in this
age of ours which prides itself on its atomic power, it is irrational to
believe that war is still an apt means of vindicating violated rights."
2. Cf. Pius XII, allocution of Sept.
30, 1954: AAS 46 (1954) p. 589; radio message of Dec. 24, 1954: AAS 47 (1955),
pp. 15 ff, John XXIII, encyclical letter Pacem in Terris: AAS 55 (1963), pp.
286-291; Paul VI, allocution to the United Nations, Oct. 4, 1965.
3. Cf. John XXIII, encyclical letter
Pacem in Terris, where reduction of arms is mentioned: AAS 55 (1963), p. 287.
4. Cf. 2 Cor. 2:6.
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